is it research or study

Research vs. Study

What's the difference.

Research and study are two essential components of the learning process, but they differ in their approach and purpose. Research involves a systematic investigation of a particular topic or issue, aiming to discover new knowledge or validate existing theories. It often involves collecting and analyzing data, conducting experiments, and drawing conclusions. On the other hand, study refers to the process of acquiring knowledge or understanding through reading, memorizing, and reviewing information. It is typically focused on a specific subject or discipline and aims to deepen one's understanding or mastery of that subject. While research is more exploratory and investigative, study is more focused on acquiring and retaining information. Both research and study are crucial for intellectual growth and expanding our knowledge base.

Further Detail

Introduction.

Research and study are two fundamental activities that play a crucial role in acquiring knowledge and understanding. While they share similarities, they also have distinct attributes that set them apart. In this article, we will explore the characteristics of research and study, highlighting their differences and similarities.

Definition and Purpose

Research is a systematic investigation aimed at discovering new knowledge, expanding existing knowledge, or solving specific problems. It involves gathering and analyzing data, formulating hypotheses, and drawing conclusions based on evidence. Research is often conducted in a structured and scientific manner, employing various methodologies and techniques.

On the other hand, study refers to the process of acquiring knowledge through reading, memorizing, and understanding information. It involves examining and learning from existing materials, such as textbooks, articles, or lectures. The purpose of study is to gain a comprehensive understanding of a particular subject or topic.

Approach and Methodology

Research typically follows a systematic approach, involving the formulation of research questions or hypotheses, designing experiments or surveys, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. It often requires a rigorous methodology, including literature review, data collection, statistical analysis, and peer review. Research can be qualitative or quantitative, depending on the nature of the investigation.

Study, on the other hand, does not necessarily follow a specific methodology. It can be more flexible and personalized, allowing individuals to choose their own approach to learning. Study often involves reading and analyzing existing materials, taking notes, summarizing information, and engaging in discussions or self-reflection. While study can be structured, it is generally less formalized compared to research.

Scope and Depth

Research tends to have a broader scope and aims to contribute to the overall body of knowledge in a particular field. It often involves exploring new areas, pushing boundaries, and generating original insights. Research can be interdisciplinary, involving multiple disciplines and perspectives. The depth of research is often extensive, requiring in-depth analysis, critical thinking, and the ability to synthesize complex information.

Study, on the other hand, is usually more focused and specific. It aims to gain a comprehensive understanding of a particular subject or topic within an existing body of knowledge. Study can be deep and detailed, but it is often limited to the available resources and materials. While study may not contribute directly to the advancement of knowledge, it plays a crucial role in building a solid foundation of understanding.

Application and Output

Research is often driven by the desire to solve real-world problems or contribute to practical applications. The output of research can take various forms, including scientific papers, patents, policy recommendations, or technological advancements. Research findings are typically shared with the academic community and the public, aiming to advance knowledge and improve society.

Study, on the other hand, focuses more on personal development and learning. The application of study is often seen in academic settings, where individuals acquire knowledge to excel in their studies or careers. The output of study is usually reflected in improved understanding, enhanced critical thinking skills, and the ability to apply knowledge in practical situations.

Limitations and Challenges

Research faces several challenges, including limited resources, time constraints, ethical considerations, and the potential for bias. Conducting research requires careful planning, data collection, and analysis, which can be time-consuming and costly. Researchers must also navigate ethical guidelines and ensure the validity and reliability of their findings.

Study, on the other hand, may face challenges such as information overload, lack of motivation, or difficulty in finding reliable sources. It requires self-discipline, time management, and the ability to filter and prioritize information. Without proper guidance or structure, study can sometimes lead to superficial understanding or misconceptions.

In conclusion, research and study are both essential activities in the pursuit of knowledge and understanding. While research focuses on generating new knowledge and solving problems through a systematic approach, study aims to acquire and comprehend existing information. Research tends to be more formalized, rigorous, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge, while study is often more flexible, personalized, and focused on individual learning. Both research and study have their unique attributes and challenges, but together they form the foundation for intellectual growth and development.

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Study vs. Research — What's the Difference?

Difference Between Study and Research

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Science, health, and public trust.

September 8, 2021

Explaining How Research Works

We’ve heard “follow the science” a lot during the pandemic. But it seems science has taken us on a long and winding road filled with twists and turns, even changing directions at times. That’s led some people to feel they can’t trust science. But when what we know changes, it often means science is working.

Explaining the scientific process may be one way that science communicators can help maintain public trust in science. Placing research in the bigger context of its field and where it fits into the scientific process can help people better understand and interpret new findings as they emerge. A single study usually uncovers only a piece of a larger puzzle.

Questions about how the world works are often investigated on many different levels. For example, scientists can look at the different atoms in a molecule, cells in a tissue, or how different tissues or systems affect each other. Researchers often must choose one or a finite number of ways to investigate a question. It can take many different studies using different approaches to start piecing the whole picture together.

Sometimes it might seem like research results contradict each other. But often, studies are just looking at different aspects of the same problem. Researchers can also investigate a question using different techniques or timeframes. That may lead them to arrive at different conclusions from the same data.

Using the data available at the time of their study, scientists develop different explanations, or models. New information may mean that a novel model needs to be developed to account for it. The models that prevail are those that can withstand the test of time and incorporate new information. Science is a constantly evolving and self-correcting process.

Scientists gain more confidence about a model through the scientific process. They replicate each other’s work. They present at conferences. And papers undergo peer review, in which experts in the field review the work before it can be published in scientific journals. This helps ensure that the study is up to current scientific standards and maintains a level of integrity. Peer reviewers may find problems with the experiments or think different experiments are needed to justify the conclusions. They might even offer new ways to interpret the data.

It’s important for science communicators to consider which stage a study is at in the scientific process when deciding whether to cover it. Some studies are posted on preprint servers for other scientists to start weighing in on and haven’t yet been fully vetted. Results that haven't yet been subjected to scientific scrutiny should be reported on with care and context to avoid confusion or frustration from readers.

We’ve developed a one-page guide, "How Research Works: Understanding the Process of Science" to help communicators put the process of science into perspective. We hope it can serve as a useful resource to help explain why science changes—and why it’s important to expect that change. Please take a look and share your thoughts with us by sending an email to  [email protected].

Below are some additional resources:

• Discoveries in Basic Science: A Perfectly Imperfect Process
• When Clinical Research Is in the News
• What is Basic Science and Why is it Important?
• ​ What is a Research Organism?
• What Are Clinical Trials and Studies?
• Basic Research – Digital Media Kit
• Decoding Science: How Does Science Know What It Knows? (NAS)
• Can Science Help People Make Decisions ? (NAS)

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What is Research: Definition, Methods, Types & Examples

The search for knowledge is closely linked to the object of study; that is, to the reconstruction of the facts that will provide an explanation to an observed event and that at first sight can be considered as a problem. It is very human to seek answers and satisfy our curiosity. Let’s talk about research.

Content Index

What is Research?

What are the characteristics of research.

• Comparative analysis chart

Qualitative methods

Quantitative methods, 8 tips for conducting accurate research.

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research , and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis .

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

• Identify potential and new customers
• Understand existing customers
• Set pragmatic goals
• Develop productive market strategies
• Address business challenges
• Put together a business expansion plan
• Identify new business opportunities
• Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
• The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
• Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
• There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated with it.
• It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research opportunities.
• It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
• Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

What is the purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:

• Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore a group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before. This exploratory data analysis process lays the foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.

LEARN ABOUT: Descriptive Analysis

• Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive research describe the behavior of a sample population. Only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the company profit.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

• Explanatory: Causal research or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

Here is a comparative analysis chart for a better understanding:

It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or observations to draw reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by thoroughly collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires . You can use this data to make smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a research repository as a single source of truth in your organization and manage your research data in one centralized data repository .

Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative .

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods .

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-ended questions . The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

• One-to-one Interview
• Focus Groups
• Ethnographic studies
• Text Analysis

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms . It uses a systematic way of investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

• Survey research
• Descriptive research
• Correlational research

LEARN MORE: Descriptive Research vs Correlational Research

Remember, it is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

• Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
• Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
• Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.
• Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
• Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

Gather insights

• Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe. Write a sentence describing each one.
• Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
• Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
• Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identified in a SWOT analysis .
• Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
• Act on your strategies
• Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
• Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and interpret results.

Review your goals before making any conclusions about your study. Remember how the process you have completed and the data you have gathered help answer your questions. Ask yourself if what your analysis revealed facilitates the identification of your conclusions and recommendations.

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Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

What is Research? Definition, Types, Methods, and Examples

Academic research is a methodical way of exploring new ideas or understanding things we already know. It involves gathering and studying information to answer questions or test ideas and requires careful thinking and persistence to reach meaningful conclusions. Let’s try to understand what research is.   

Table of Contents

Why is research important?    

Whether it’s doing experiments, analyzing data, or studying old documents, research helps us learn more about the world. Without it, we rely on guesswork and hearsay, often leading to mistakes and misconceptions. By using systematic methods, research helps us see things clearly, free from biases. (1)   

What is the purpose of research?  

In the real world, academic research is also a key driver of innovation. It brings many benefits, such as creating valuable opportunities and fostering partnerships between academia and industry. By turning research into products and services, science makes meaningful improvements to people’s lives and boosts the economy. (2)(3)  

What are the characteristics of research?    

The research process collects accurate information systematically. Logic is used to analyze the collected data and find insights. Checking the collected data thoroughly ensures accuracy. Research also leads to new questions using existing data.   

Accuracy is key in research, which requires precise data collection and analysis. In scientific research, laboratories ensure accuracy by carefully calibrating instruments and controlling experiments. Every step is checked to maintain integrity, from instruments to final results. Accuracy gives reliable insights, which in turn help advance knowledge.   

Types of research    

The different forms of research serve distinct purposes in expanding knowledge and understanding:    

• Exploratory research ventures into uncharted territories, exploring new questions or problem areas without aiming for conclusive answers. For instance, a study may delve into unexplored market segments to better understand consumer behaviour patterns.   
• Descriptive research delves into current issues by collecting and analyzing data to describe the behaviour of a sample population. For instance, a survey may investigate millennials’ spending habits to gain insights into their purchasing behaviours.   
• Explanatory research, also known as causal research, seeks to understand the impact of specific changes in existing procedures. An example might be a study examining how changes in drug dosage over some time improve patients’ health.   
• Correlational research examines connections between two sets of data to uncover meaningful relationships. For instance, a study may analyze the relationship between advertising spending and sales revenue.   
• Theoretical research deepens existing knowledge without attempting to solve specific problems. For example, a study may explore theoretical frameworks to understand the underlying principles of human behaviour.   
• Applied research focuses on real-world issues and aims to provide practical solutions. An example could be a study investigating the effectiveness of a new teaching method in improving student performance in schools.  (4)

Types of research methods

• Qualitative Method: Qualitative research gathers non-numerical data through interactions with participants. Methods include one-to-one interviews, focus groups, ethnographic studies, text analysis, and case studies. For example, a researcher interviews cancer patients to understand how different treatments impact their lives emotionally.    
• Quantitative Method: Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable data to understand relationships between variables. They use systematic methods to investigate events and aim to explain or predict outcomes. For example, Researchers study how exercise affects heart health by measuring variables like heart rate and blood pressure in a large group before and after an exercise program. (5)  

Basic steps involved in the research process    

Here are the basic steps to help you understand the research process:   

• Choose your topic: Decide the specific subject or area that you want to study and investigate. This decision is the foundation of your research journey.   
• Find information: Look for information related to your research topic. You can search in journals, books, online, or ask experts for help.   
• Assess your sources: Make sure the information you find is reliable and trustworthy. Check the author’s credentials and the publication date.   
• Take notes: Write down important information from your sources that you can use in your research.   
• Write your paper: Use your notes to write your research paper. Broadly, start with an introduction, then write the body of your paper, and finish with a conclusion.   
• Cite your sources: Give credit to the sources you used by including citations in your paper.   
• Proofread: Check your paper thoroughly for any errors in spelling, grammar, or punctuation before you submit it. (6)

How to ensure research accuracy?  

Ensuring accuracy in research is a mix of several essential steps:    

• Clarify goals: Start by defining clear objectives for your research. Identify your research question, hypothesis, and variables of interest. This clarity will help guide your data collection and analysis methods, ensuring that your research stays focused and purposeful.   
• Use reliable data: Select trustworthy sources for your information, whether they are primary data collected by you or secondary data obtained from other sources. For example, if you’re studying climate change, use data from reputable scientific organizations with transparent methodologies.   
• Validate data: Validate your data to ensure it meets the standards of your research project. Check for errors, outliers, and inconsistencies at different stages, such as during data collection, entry, cleaning, or analysis.    
• Document processes: Documenting your data collection and analysis processes is essential for transparency and reproducibility. Record details such as data collection methods, cleaning procedures, and analysis techniques used. This documentation not only helps you keep track of your research but also enables others to understand and replicate your work.   
• Review results: Finally, review and verify your research findings to confirm their accuracy and reliability. Double-check your analyses, cross-reference your data, and seek feedback from peers or supervisors. (7) 

Research is crucial for better understanding our world and for social and economic growth. By following ethical guidelines and ensuring accuracy, researchers play a critical role in driving this progress, whether through exploring new topics or deepening existing knowledge.   

References:  

• Why is Research Important – Introductory Psychology – Washington State University  
• The Role Of Scientific Research In Driving Business Innovation – Forbes  
• Innovation – Royal Society  
• Types of Research – Definition & Methods – Bachelor Print  
• What Is Qualitative vs. Quantitative Study? – National University  
• Basic Steps in the Research Process – North Hennepin Community College  
• Best Practices for Ensuring Data Accuracy in Research – LinkedIn  

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Based on 21+ years of experience in academia, Researcher.Life All Access empowers researchers to put their best research forward and move closer to success. Explore our top AI Tools pack, AI Tools + Publication Services pack, or Build Your Own Plan. Find everything a researcher needs to succeed, all in one place –  Get All Access now starting at just $17 a month !    

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Module 1: Introduction: What is Research?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Explain how the scientific method is used to develop new knowledge
• Describe why it is important to follow a research plan

The Scientific Method consists of observing the world around you and creating a  hypothesis  about relationships in the world. A hypothesis is an informed and educated prediction or explanation about something. Part of the research process involves testing the  hypothesis , and then examining the results of these tests as they relate to both the hypothesis and the world around you. When a researcher forms a hypothesis, this acts like a map through the research study. It tells the researcher which factors are important to study and how they might be related to each other or caused by a  manipulation  that the researcher introduces (e.g. a program, treatment or change in the environment). With this map, the researcher can interpret the information he/she collects and can make sound conclusions about the results.

Research can be done with human beings, animals, plants, other organisms and inorganic matter. When research is done with human beings and animals, it must follow specific rules about the treatment of humans and animals that have been created by the U.S. Federal Government. This ensures that humans and animals are treated with dignity and respect, and that the research causes minimal harm.

No matter what topic is being studied, the value of the research depends on how well it is designed and done. Therefore, one of the most important considerations in doing good research is to follow the design or plan that is developed by an experienced researcher who is called the  Principal Investigator  (PI). The PI is in charge of all aspects of the research and creates what is called a  protocol  (the research plan) that all people doing the research must follow. By doing so, the PI and the public can be sure that the results of the research are real and useful to other scientists.

Module 1: Discussion Questions

• How is a hypothesis like a road map?
• Who is ultimately responsible for the design and conduct of a research study?
• How does following the research protocol contribute to informing public health practices?

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Home » Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Definition:

Research refers to the process of investigating a particular topic or question in order to discover new information , develop new insights, or confirm or refute existing knowledge. It involves a systematic and rigorous approach to collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, and requires careful planning and attention to detail.

History of Research

The history of research can be traced back to ancient times when early humans observed and experimented with the natural world around them. Over time, research evolved and became more systematic as people sought to better understand the world and solve problems.

In ancient civilizations such as those in Greece, Egypt, and China, scholars pursued knowledge through observation, experimentation, and the development of theories. They explored various fields, including medicine, astronomy, and mathematics.

During the Middle Ages, research was often conducted by religious scholars who sought to reconcile scientific discoveries with their faith. The Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in science and the scientific method, and the Enlightenment period marked a major shift towards empirical observation and experimentation as the primary means of acquiring knowledge.

The 19th and 20th centuries saw significant advancements in research, with the development of new scientific disciplines and fields such as psychology, sociology, and computer science. Advances in technology and communication also greatly facilitated research efforts.

Today, research is conducted in a wide range of fields and is a critical component of many industries, including healthcare, technology, and academia. The process of research continues to evolve as new methods and technologies emerge, but the fundamental principles of observation, experimentation, and hypothesis testing remain at its core.

Types of Research

Types of Research are as follows:

• Applied Research : This type of research aims to solve practical problems or answer specific questions, often in a real-world context.
• Basic Research : This type of research aims to increase our understanding of a phenomenon or process, often without immediate practical applications.
• Experimental Research : This type of research involves manipulating one or more variables to determine their effects on another variable, while controlling all other variables.
• Descriptive Research : This type of research aims to describe and measure phenomena or characteristics, without attempting to manipulate or control any variables.
• Correlational Research: This type of research examines the relationships between two or more variables, without manipulating any variables.
• Qualitative Research : This type of research focuses on exploring and understanding the meaning and experience of individuals or groups, often through methods such as interviews, focus groups, and observation.
• Quantitative Research : This type of research uses numerical data and statistical analysis to draw conclusions about phenomena or populations.
• Action Research: This type of research is often used in education, healthcare, and other fields, and involves collaborating with practitioners or participants to identify and solve problems in real-world settings.
• Mixed Methods Research : This type of research combines both quantitative and qualitative research methods to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon or problem.
• Case Study Research: This type of research involves in-depth examination of a specific individual, group, or situation, often using multiple data sources.
• Longitudinal Research: This type of research follows a group of individuals over an extended period of time, often to study changes in behavior, attitudes, or health outcomes.
• Cross-Sectional Research : This type of research examines a population at a single point in time, often to study differences or similarities among individuals or groups.
• Survey Research: This type of research uses questionnaires or interviews to gather information from a sample of individuals about their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or experiences.
• Ethnographic Research : This type of research involves immersion in a cultural group or community to understand their way of life, beliefs, values, and practices.
• Historical Research : This type of research investigates events or phenomena from the past using primary sources, such as archival records, newspapers, and diaries.
• Content Analysis Research : This type of research involves analyzing written, spoken, or visual material to identify patterns, themes, or messages.
• Participatory Research : This type of research involves collaboration between researchers and participants throughout the research process, often to promote empowerment, social justice, or community development.
• Comparative Research: This type of research compares two or more groups or phenomena to identify similarities and differences, often across different countries or cultures.
• Exploratory Research : This type of research is used to gain a preliminary understanding of a topic or phenomenon, often in the absence of prior research or theories.
• Explanatory Research: This type of research aims to identify the causes or reasons behind a particular phenomenon, often through the testing of theories or hypotheses.
• Evaluative Research: This type of research assesses the effectiveness or impact of an intervention, program, or policy, often through the use of outcome measures.
• Simulation Research : This type of research involves creating a model or simulation of a phenomenon or process, often to predict outcomes or test theories.

Data Collection Methods

• Surveys : Surveys are used to collect data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Surveys can be conducted face-to-face, by phone, mail, email, or online.
• Experiments : Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables to measure their effects on another variable, while controlling for other factors. Experiments can be conducted in a laboratory or in a natural setting.
• Case studies : Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a single case, such as an individual, group, organization, or event. Case studies can use a variety of data collection methods, including interviews, observation, and document analysis.
• Observational research : Observational research involves observing and recording the behavior of individuals or groups in a natural setting. Observational research can be conducted covertly or overtly.
• Content analysis : Content analysis involves analyzing written, spoken, or visual material to identify patterns, themes, or messages. Content analysis can be used to study media, social media, or other forms of communication.
• Ethnography : Ethnography involves immersion in a cultural group or community to understand their way of life, beliefs, values, and practices. Ethnographic research can use a range of data collection methods, including observation, interviews, and document analysis.
• Secondary data analysis : Secondary data analysis involves using existing data from sources such as government agencies, research institutions, or commercial organizations. Secondary data can be used to answer research questions, without collecting new data.
• Focus groups: Focus groups involve gathering a small group of people together to discuss a topic or issue. The discussions are usually guided by a moderator who asks questions and encourages discussion.
• Interviews : Interviews involve one-on-one conversations between a researcher and a participant. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, and can be conducted in person, by phone, or online.
• Document analysis : Document analysis involves collecting and analyzing written documents, such as reports, memos, and emails. Document analysis can be used to study organizational communication, policy documents, and other forms of written material.

Data Analysis Methods

Data Analysis Methods in Research are as follows:

• Descriptive statistics : Descriptive statistics involve summarizing and describing the characteristics of a dataset, such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and frequency distributions.
• Inferential statistics: Inferential statistics involve making inferences or predictions about a population based on a sample of data, using methods such as hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and regression analysis.
• Qualitative analysis: Qualitative analysis involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as text, images, or audio, to identify patterns, themes, or meanings. Qualitative analysis can be used to study subjective experiences, social norms, and cultural practices.
• Content analysis: Content analysis involves analyzing written, spoken, or visual material to identify patterns, themes, or messages. Content analysis can be used to study media, social media, or other forms of communication.
• Grounded theory: Grounded theory involves developing a theory or model based on empirical data, using methods such as constant comparison, memo writing, and theoretical sampling.
• Discourse analysis : Discourse analysis involves analyzing language use, including the structure, function, and meaning of words and phrases, to understand how language reflects and shapes social relationships and power dynamics.
• Network analysis: Network analysis involves analyzing the structure and dynamics of social networks, including the relationships between individuals and groups, to understand social processes and outcomes.

Research Methodology

Research methodology refers to the overall approach and strategy used to conduct a research study. It involves the systematic planning, design, and execution of research to answer specific research questions or test hypotheses. The main components of research methodology include:

• Research design : Research design refers to the overall plan and structure of the study, including the type of study (e.g., observational, experimental), the sampling strategy, and the data collection and analysis methods.
• Sampling strategy: Sampling strategy refers to the method used to select a representative sample of participants or units from the population of interest. The choice of sampling strategy will depend on the research question and the nature of the population being studied.
• Data collection methods : Data collection methods refer to the techniques used to collect data from study participants or sources, such as surveys, interviews, observations, or secondary data sources.
• Data analysis methods: Data analysis methods refer to the techniques used to analyze and interpret the data collected in the study, such as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, qualitative analysis, or content analysis.
• Ethical considerations: Ethical considerations refer to the principles and guidelines that govern the treatment of human participants or the use of sensitive data in the research study.
• Validity and reliability : Validity and reliability refer to the extent to which the study measures what it is intended to measure and the degree to which the study produces consistent and accurate results.

Applications of Research

Research has a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Some of the key applications of research include:

• Advancing scientific knowledge : Research plays a critical role in advancing our understanding of the world around us. Through research, scientists are able to discover new knowledge, uncover patterns and relationships, and develop new theories and models.
• Improving healthcare: Research is instrumental in advancing medical knowledge and developing new treatments and therapies. Clinical trials and studies help to identify the effectiveness and safety of new drugs and medical devices, while basic research helps to uncover the underlying causes of diseases and conditions.
• Enhancing education: Research helps to improve the quality of education by identifying effective teaching methods, developing new educational tools and technologies, and assessing the impact of various educational interventions.
• Driving innovation: Research is a key driver of innovation, helping to develop new products, services, and technologies. By conducting research, businesses and organizations can identify new market opportunities, gain a competitive advantage, and improve their operations.
• Informing public policy : Research plays an important role in informing public policy decisions. Policy makers rely on research to develop evidence-based policies that address societal challenges, such as healthcare, education, and environmental issues.
• Understanding human behavior : Research helps us to better understand human behavior, including social, cognitive, and emotional processes. This understanding can be applied in a variety of settings, such as marketing, organizational management, and public policy.

Importance of Research

Research plays a crucial role in advancing human knowledge and understanding in various fields of study. It is the foundation upon which new discoveries, innovations, and technologies are built. Here are some of the key reasons why research is essential:

• Advancing knowledge: Research helps to expand our understanding of the world around us, including the natural world, social structures, and human behavior.
• Problem-solving: Research can help to identify problems, develop solutions, and assess the effectiveness of interventions in various fields, including medicine, engineering, and social sciences.
• Innovation : Research is the driving force behind the development of new technologies, products, and processes. It helps to identify new possibilities and opportunities for improvement.
• Evidence-based decision making: Research provides the evidence needed to make informed decisions in various fields, including policy making, business, and healthcare.
• Education and training : Research provides the foundation for education and training in various fields, helping to prepare individuals for careers and advancing their knowledge.
• Economic growth: Research can drive economic growth by facilitating the development of new technologies and innovations, creating new markets and job opportunities.

When to use Research

Research is typically used when seeking to answer questions or solve problems that require a systematic approach to gathering and analyzing information. Here are some examples of when research may be appropriate:

• To explore a new area of knowledge : Research can be used to investigate a new area of knowledge and gain a better understanding of a topic.
• To identify problems and find solutions: Research can be used to identify problems and develop solutions to address them.
• To evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions : Research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and social services.
• To inform policy decisions: Research can be used to provide evidence to inform policy decisions in areas such as economics, politics, and environmental issues.
• To develop new products or technologies : Research can be used to develop new products or technologies and improve existing ones.
• To understand human behavior : Research can be used to better understand human behavior and social structures, such as in psychology, sociology, and anthropology.

Characteristics of Research

The following are some of the characteristics of research:

• Purpose : Research is conducted to address a specific problem or question and to generate new knowledge or insights.
• Systematic : Research is conducted in a systematic and organized manner, following a set of procedures and guidelines.
• Empirical : Research is based on evidence and data, rather than personal opinion or intuition.
• Objective: Research is conducted with an objective and impartial perspective, avoiding biases and personal beliefs.
• Rigorous : Research involves a rigorous and critical examination of the evidence and data, using reliable and valid methods of data collection and analysis.
• Logical : Research is based on logical and rational thinking, following a well-defined and logical structure.
• Generalizable : Research findings are often generalized to broader populations or contexts, based on a representative sample of the population.
• Replicable : Research is conducted in a way that allows others to replicate the study and obtain similar results.
• Ethical : Research is conducted in an ethical manner, following established ethical guidelines and principles, to ensure the protection of participants’ rights and well-being.
• Cumulative : Research builds on previous studies and contributes to the overall body of knowledge in a particular field.

Advantages of Research

Research has several advantages, including:

• Generates new knowledge: Research is conducted to generate new knowledge and understanding of a particular topic or phenomenon, which can be used to inform policy, practice, and decision-making.
• Provides evidence-based solutions : Research provides evidence-based solutions to problems and issues, which can be used to develop effective interventions and strategies.
• Improves quality : Research can improve the quality of products, services, and programs by identifying areas for improvement and developing solutions to address them.
• Enhances credibility : Research enhances the credibility of an organization or individual by providing evidence to support claims and assertions.
• Enables innovation: Research can lead to innovation by identifying new ideas, approaches, and technologies.
• Informs decision-making : Research provides information that can inform decision-making, helping individuals and organizations make more informed and effective choices.
• Facilitates progress: Research can facilitate progress by identifying challenges and opportunities and developing solutions to address them.
• Enhances understanding: Research can enhance understanding of complex issues and phenomena, helping individuals and organizations navigate challenges and opportunities more effectively.
• Promotes accountability : Research promotes accountability by providing a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of policies, programs, and interventions.
• Fosters collaboration: Research can foster collaboration by bringing together individuals and organizations with diverse perspectives and expertise to address complex issues and problems.

Limitations of Research

Some Limitations of Research are as follows:

• Cost : Research can be expensive, particularly when large-scale studies are required. This can limit the number of studies that can be conducted and the amount of data that can be collected.
• Time : Research can be time-consuming, particularly when longitudinal studies are required. This can limit the speed at which research findings can be generated and disseminated.
• Sample size: The size of the sample used in research can limit the generalizability of the findings to larger populations.
• Bias : Research can be affected by bias, both in the design and implementation of the study, as well as in the analysis and interpretation of the data.
• Ethics : Research can present ethical challenges, particularly when human or animal subjects are involved. This can limit the types of research that can be conducted and the methods that can be used.
• Data quality: The quality of the data collected in research can be affected by a range of factors, including the reliability and validity of the measures used, as well as the accuracy of the data entry and analysis.
• Subjectivity : Research can be subjective, particularly when qualitative methods are used. This can limit the objectivity and reliability of the findings.
• Accessibility : Research findings may not be accessible to all stakeholders, particularly those who are not part of the academic or research community.
• Interpretation : Research findings can be open to interpretation, particularly when the data is complex or contradictory. This can limit the ability of researchers to draw firm conclusions.
• Unforeseen events : Unexpected events, such as changes in the environment or the emergence of new technologies, can limit the relevance and applicability of research findings.

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Understanding Clinical Trials

Clinical research: what is it.

Your doctor may have said that you are eligible for a clinical trial, or you may have seen an ad for a clinical research study. What is clinical research, and is it right for you?

Clinical research is the comprehensive study of the safety and effectiveness of the most promising advances in patient care. Clinical research is different than laboratory research. It involves people who volunteer to help us better understand medicine and health. Lab research generally does not involve people — although it helps us learn which new ideas may help people.

Every drug, device, tool, diagnostic test, technique and technology used in medicine today was once tested in volunteers who took part in clinical research studies.

At Johns Hopkins Medicine, we believe that clinical research is key to improve care for people in our community and around the world. Once you understand more about clinical research, you may appreciate why it’s important to participate — for yourself and the community.

What Are the Types of Clinical Research?

There are two main kinds of clinical research:

Observational Studies

Observational studies are studies that aim to identify and analyze patterns in medical data or in biological samples, such as tissue or blood provided by study participants.

Clinical Trials

Clinical trials, which are also called interventional studies, test the safety and effectiveness of medical interventions — such as medications, procedures and tools — in living people.

Clinical research studies need people of every age, health status, race, gender, ethnicity and cultural background to participate. This will increase the chances that scientists and clinicians will develop treatments and procedures that are likely to be safe and work well in all people. Potential volunteers are carefully screened to ensure that they meet all of the requirements for any study before they begin. Most of the reasons people are not included in studies is because of concerns about safety.

Both healthy people and those with diagnosed medical conditions can take part in clinical research. Participation is always completely voluntary, and participants can leave a study at any time for any reason.

“The only way medical advancements can be made is if people volunteer to participate in clinical research. The research participant is just as necessary as the researcher in this partnership to advance health care.” Liz Martinez, Johns Hopkins Medicine Research Participant Advocate

Types of Research Studies

Within the two main kinds of clinical research, there are many types of studies. They vary based on the study goals, participants and other factors.

Biospecimen studies

Healthy volunteer studies.

 Goals of Clinical Trials

Because every clinical trial is designed to answer one or more medical questions, different trials have different goals. Those goals include:

Treatment trials

Prevention trials, screening trials, phases of a clinical trial.

In general, a new drug needs to go through a series of four types of clinical trials. This helps researchers show that the medication is safe and effective. As a study moves through each phase, researchers learn more about a medication, including its risks and benefits.

Is the medication safe and what is the right dose?   Phase one trials involve small numbers of participants, often normal volunteers.

Does the new medication work and what are the side effects?   Phase two trials test the treatment or procedure on a larger number of participants. These participants usually have the condition or disease that the treatment is intended to remedy.

Is the new medication more effective than existing treatments?  Phase three trials have even more people enrolled. Some may get a placebo (a substance that has no medical effect) or an already approved treatment, so that the new medication can be compared to that treatment.

Is the new medication effective and safe over the long term?   Phase four happens after the treatment or procedure has been approved. Information about patients who are receiving the treatment is gathered and studied to see if any new information is seen when given to a large number of patients.

“Johns Hopkins has a comprehensive system overseeing research that is audited by the FDA and the Association for Accreditation of Human Research Protection Programs to make certain all research participants voluntarily agreed to join a study and their safety was maximized.” Gail Daumit, M.D., M.H.S., Vice Dean for Clinical Investigation, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine

Is It Safe to Participate in Clinical Research?

There are several steps in place to protect volunteers who take part in clinical research studies. Clinical Research is regulated by the federal government. In addition, the institutional review board (IRB) and Human Subjects Research Protection Program at each study location have many safeguards built in to each study to protect the safety and privacy of participants.

Clinical researchers are required by law to follow the safety rules outlined by each study's protocol. A protocol is a detailed plan of what researchers will do in during the study.

In the U.S., every study site's IRB — which is made up of both medical experts and members of the general public — must approve all clinical research. IRB members also review plans for all clinical studies. And, they make sure that research participants are protected from as much risk as possible.

Earning Your Trust

This was not always the case. Many people of color are wary of joining clinical research because of previous poor treatment of underrepresented minorities throughout the U.S. This includes medical research performed on enslaved people without their consent, or not giving treatment to Black men who participated in the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male. Since the 1970s, numerous regulations have been in place to protect the rights of study participants.

Many clinical research studies are also supervised by a data and safety monitoring committee. This is a group made up of experts in the area being studied. These biomedical professionals regularly monitor clinical studies as they progress. If they discover or suspect any problems with a study, they immediately stop the trial. In addition, Johns Hopkins Medicine’s Research Participant Advocacy Group focuses on improving the experience of people who participate in clinical research.

Clinical research participants with concerns about anything related to the study they are taking part in should contact Johns Hopkins Medicine’s IRB or our Research Participant Advocacy Group .

Learn More About Clinical Research at Johns Hopkins Medicine

For information about clinical trial opportunities at Johns Hopkins Medicine, visit our trials site.

Video Clinical Research for a Healthier Tomorrow: A Family Shares Their Story

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What Is Research and Why We Do It

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The notions of science and scientific research are discussed and the motivations for doing research are analyzed. Research can span a broad range of approaches, from purely theoretical to practice-oriented; different approaches often coexist and fertilize each other. Research ignites human progress and societal change. In turn, society drives and supports research. The specific role of research in Informatics is discussed. Informatics is driving the current transition towards the new digital society in which we will live in the future.

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In [ 34 ], P.E. Medawar discusses what he calls the “snobismus” of pure versus applied science. In his words, this is one of the most damaging forms of snobbism, which draws a class distinction between pure and applied science.

Originality, rigor, and significance have been defined and used as the key criteria to evaluate research outputs by the UK Research Excellence Framework (REF) [ 46 ]. A research evaluation exercise has been performed periodically since 1986 on UK higher education institutions and their research outputs have been rated according to their originality, rigor, and significance.

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This view applies mainly to natural and physical sciences.

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Israel is a very good example. Investments in research resulted in a proliferation of new, cutting-edge enterprises. The term start-up nation has been coined by Dan Senor and Saul Singer in their successful book [ 51 ] to characterize this phenomenon.

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The ERC takes an ecumenical approach and calls the research sector “Computer Science and Informatics.”

I discuss here the effect of “big data” on research, although most sectors of society—industry, finance, health, …—are also deeply affected.

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UC study: Boosting brain protein levels may slow decline from Alzheimer’s

Research published in the journal brain.

A study published in the journal Brain shows that increases in protein levels with new Alzheimer’s drugs can explain the slowing of cognitive impairment at least as well as the reduction in amyloid plaques. 

During a study challenging the idea that newly approved monoclonal antibodies reduce cognitive decline in Alzheimer's patients by clearing amyloid, University of Cincinnati researchers found that the unintended increase in levels of a critical brain protein correlates equally well with cognitive benefits. 

Led by UC’s Alberto Espay, MD, the research was published in the journal Brain Sept. 11 .

Study background

For decades, the prevailing theory in the field has stated that a protein made up of 42 amino acids called amyloid-beta 42 (Aβ42) hardens into clumps called amyloid plaques, and those plaques in the brain cause the damage and/or dysfunction that causes Alzheimer’s disease.

Espay and team have hypothesized that normal, soluble Aβ42 in the brain is crucial for neuron health and that the loss of Aβ42, rather than the buildup of plaques, drives Alzheimer’s. This includes published research that suggests dementia occurs not when plaque levels are high but when Aβ42 levels drop very low. 

According to Espay’s research, the transformation of Aβ42 into plaques appears to be the brain’s normal response to biological, metabolic or infectious stress. 

“Most of us will accrue amyloid plaques in our brains as we age, and yet very few of us with plaques go on to develop dementia,” said Espay, professor of neurology in the UC College of Medicine and director and endowed chair of the James J. and Joan A. Gardner Family Center for Parkinson’s Disease and Movement Disorders at the UC Gardner Neuroscience Institute. “Yet the plaques remain the center of our attention in biomarker development and therapeutic strategies.”

Alberto Espay, MD. Photo/Colleen Kelley/UC Marketing + Brand.

Study details

Recently, several new monoclonal antibody medications designed to remove amyloid from the brain were approved after showing they lessened cognitive decline in clinical trials. 

Espay and his colleagues noticed that these drugs unintentionally increased levels of Aβ42.  

“Amyloid plaques don’t cause Alzheimer’s, but if the brain makes too much of it while defending against infections, toxins or biological changes, it can’t produce enough Aβ42, causing its levels to drop below a critical threshold,” Espay explained. “That’s when dementia symptoms emerge.” 

The team analyzed data from nearly 26,000 patients enrolled in 24 randomized clinical trials of these new antibody treatments, assessing cognitive impairment and differences in levels of Aβ42 before and after treatment. They found that higher levels of Aβ42 after treatment were independently associated with slower cognitive impairment and clinical decline.  

“All stories have two sides — even the one we have told ourselves about how anti-amyloid treatments work: by lowering amyloid,” Espay said. “In fact, they also raise the levels of Aβ42. Even if this is unintended, it is why there may be a benefit. Our study shows that we can predict changes in cognitive outcomes in anti-amyloid trials at least as well by the increases in Aβ42 as by the decreases in amyloid.”

Espay said these findings fit well into his larger hypothesis about the root cause of Alzheimer’s, as increasing levels of Aβ42 appear to improve cognition.  

“If the problem with Alzheimer’s is the loss of the normal protein, then increasing it should be beneficial, and this study showed that it is,” he said. “The story makes sense: Increasing Aβ42 levels to within the normal range is desirable.” 

However, Espay believes these results also present a conundrum for clinicians because removing amyloid from the brain is toxic and may cause the brain to shrink faster after antibody treatment. 

“Do we give patients an anti-protein treatment to increase their protein levels? I think the end, increasing Aβ42, doesn’t justify the means, decreasing amyloid,” Espay said. Therapies that directly increase Aβ42 levels without targeting amyloid are a focus of research for Espay and his group.

Next Lives Here

The University of Cincinnati is classified as a Research 1 institution by the Carnegie Commission and is ranked in the National Science Foundation's Top-35 public research universities. UC's graduate students and faculty investigate problems and innovate solutions with real-world impact.  Next Lives Here .

Other coauthors of the study include UC’s Jesus Abanto, Alok K. Dwivedi of Texas Tech University and Bruno P. Imbimbo of Chiesi Farmaceutici of Parma, Italy. 

Featured photo at top of a model of a brain. Photo/Robina Weermeijer/Unsplash.

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White Protestants and Catholics support Trump, but voters in other U.S. religious groups prefer Harris

Heading into the fall campaign for president, U.S. religious groups that traditionally have leaned Republican are backing former President Donald Trump by wide margins, while religious groups that traditionally have favored Democratic candidates are mostly supporting Vice President Kamala Harris.

The latest Pew Research Center survey , conducted Aug. 26-Sept. 2, 2024, finds that majorities of registered voters in three key religious groups say they would vote for Trump or lean toward doing so if the election were today:

• 82% of White evangelical Protestants
• 61% of White Catholics
• 58% of White nonevangelical Protestants

Harris currently has the backing of roughly two-thirds or more registered voters in various other religious groups:

• 86% of Black Protestants
• 85% of atheists
• 78% of agnostics
• 65% of Hispanic Catholics
• 65% of Jewish voters

The survey includes responses from Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus and people from many other religious backgrounds. However, it does not include enough respondents from these smaller religious groups to be able to report on them separately.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to understand religious differences in U.S. voters’ views of the 2024 presidential election campaign.

For this analysis, we surveyed 9,720 adults – including 8,044 registered voters – from Aug. 26 to Sept. 2, 2024. Everyone who took part in this survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), a group of people recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses who have agreed to take surveys regularly. This kind of recruitment gives nearly all U.S. adults a chance of selection. Surveys were conducted either online or by telephone with a live interviewer. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other factors.  Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for this analysis , the topline and the  survey methodology . Here are details about sample sizes and margins of error for groups analyzed in this analysis.

Harris has improved on Biden’s performance with some religious groups

The new survey marks the first time that the Center has asked about voters’ preferences between Trump and Harris – without asking about any third-party candidates – since President Joe Biden withdrew as the Democratic nominee and independent Robert F. Kennedy Jr. suspended his campaign .

Harris currently garners more support from Black Protestants and Hispanic Catholics than Biden did in April , when 77% of Black Protestants and 49% of Hispanic Catholics backed him.

Otherwise, the religious dynamics of the U.S. presidential campaign look about as they did in the spring.

Support for Trump varies by church attendance

Among White evangelicals, support for Trump is higher among those who attend church regularly – that is, at least once or twice a month – than among those who don’t. Support for Trump is also marginally higher among White Catholics who attend Mass at least monthly than among White Catholics who attend Mass less often.

By contrast, among White Protestants who are not evangelical, support for Trump is somewhat lower among regular churchgoers than among those who don’t attend church regularly.

There are no such differences in support for Harris among Black Protestants: 86% of both regular churchgoers and those who don’t often go to church support her.

How U.S. religious groups view key issues in the election

We also asked respondents how important a variety of issues will be to their vote in the presidential election.

Certain issues are highly important to voters regardless of religious group. For instance, at least six-in-ten registered voters in every religious group say the economy will be very important in their voting decision. And half or more in almost every religious group say the same about health care, Supreme Court appointments and foreign policy.

White evangelical Protestant voters stand out for the high level of importance they attach to immigration. Roughly eight-in-ten White evangelicals (79%) say immigration will be very important in their voting decision – higher than any other group. A large majority of White Catholics (72%) also say immigration will be a key factor in their decision.

Abortion, in turn, is rated as a very important issue by more atheists (a group that mostly supports legal abortion ) than by people with other religious identities. Roughly three-quarters of atheists (77%) say abortion will be very important in deciding who to vote for. Around six-in-ten agnostics (62%), Jewish voters (59%) and Black Protestants (57%) also say abortion will be very important in deciding how to vote this fall. Fewer Catholics (44%) and White Protestants (including 48% of evangelicals and 43% of nonevangelicals) say the same.

These differences across religious groups reflect broader partisan patterns. White evangelicals and White Catholics mostly identify with or lean toward the Republican Party and support Trump in the current election. And the new survey shows that more Republican voters than Democratic voters say immigration will be very important to their choice this fall .

On the other hand, most atheists, agnostics, Black Protestants and Jewish voters identify with or lean toward the Democratic Party and support Harris in the current campaign. The new survey shows that abortion is a key issue for more Democratic voters than Republican voters.

Note: Here are the questions used for this analysis , the topline and the  survey methodology . Here are details about sample sizes and margins of error for groups analyzed in this analysis.

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Gregory A. Smith is a senior associate director of research at Pew Research Center .

Many around the globe say it’s important their leader stands up for people’s religious beliefs

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Why does research matter?

Victor h hu.

Assistant Clinical Professor: International Centre for Eye Health, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine and Consultant Ophthalmologist: Mid Cheshire NHS Hospitals, UK.

A working knowledge of research – both how it is done, and how it can be used – is important for everyone involved in direct patient care and the planning & delivery of eye programmes.

A research coordinator collecting data from a health extension worker. ethiopia

The mention of ‘research’ can be off-putting and may seem irrelevant in the busy environment of a clinic or hospital. However, research is central to all aspects of eye care delivery – both inside and outside the clinic.

Whether we are health workers, public health practitioners, managers, policy makers, or editors – all of us ‘stand on the shoulders of giants’: we rely on the research done by others before us. This can be as simple – and profound – as hand washing between patients; a habit that only became common practice in the 1870s, following the work of the Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis and Scottish surgeon Joseph Lister. Or it can be as complex as making a diagnosis of glaucoma and knowing what treatment to give. All current eye care practice is based on research. Clinical, operational (eye care delivery) and public health practice will continue to be profoundly shaped by new research developments.

What is research?

In its simplest form, research is about investigating the world around us to increase our knowledge, so we can work out how to do things better.

In health care, we use a scientific approach to carry out research; there is a set way of doing things that ensures research is done in a logical way, and that results are published widely, so that other people can scrutinise what has been done. This gives us confidence that the results will be useful in everyday practice.

It is important to critically evaluate research and research findings, including checking that research has been carried out in the proper way, and whether the conclusions that have been made are reasonable and justified. One of the ways in which the scientific community ensures the quality of research is through the process of peer review. Before research papers are accepted for publication in a scientific journal, they are reviewed by other researchers (peer reviewed) to check the quality of the research and the validity of the results and conclusions. Even so, the quality of published research can vary.

This is why systematic reviews and meta-analyses are so valuable: they answer important questions by identifying, evaluating, and summarising good quality evidence from a range of published research papers. Often, systematic reviews conclude that there is not enough evidence to answer a question with absolute certainty, or to produce an answer that will be applicable in different countries or health care settings. This is useful, as it gives researchers guidance about where more research is needed (see article on page 13).

But this can be a challenge for clinicians – how can we make good decisions in the absence of definitive evidence? Clinical experience is very important, but where possible this should be informed by good research – see page 6 for practical tips.

Health care practitioners and managers can also use guidance from professional bodies such as the World Health Organization. The article on page 8 explains the process by which guidelines are developed and shows why we can rely on them.

In conclusion, research is fundamental to the everyday practice of health care professionals, including eye care workers. Research allows us to find out new things and to provide better care for patients. There are many different types of research that can be carried out and these can vary enormously. It is important to ask the right question, as this will determine the type of research that is done (see page 5).

All of us can participate in research: it starts with asking questions and then going to find out the answers. The article on page 10 offers practical suggestions for carrying out small-scale research that is relevant and useful to eye care.

Types of health research

Basic science research, such as in molecular genetics or cell biology, fills the gaps in our understanding of disease mechanisms (pathogenesis).

Clinical research addresses how diseases in individuals can present and be diagnosed, and how a condition progresses and can be managed.

Epidemiological research , which is at the population level (as opposed to the individual level), answers questions about the number of people in the population who have a condition, what factors (called exposures) are causing the condition, and how it can be treated or prevented at the population level.

Going beyond epidemiology, there is also operational and health systems research , which focuses on how best to deliver health interventions, clinical and rehabilitation services, or behaviour change initiatives.

Other types of research , which are also important for public health, include health economics, social science, and statistical modelling.

Finally, systematic literature reviews can be very useful, as they identify and summarise the available evidence on a specific topic.

By Clare Gilbert and GVS Murthy

Examples of research questions and how they have been answered

Can povidone iodine prevent endophthalmitis.

In many eye departments, cataract surgery is a frequently preformed operation. One of the most serious complications is infection within the eye (endophthalmitis) which can lead to loss of vision. Several well conducted randomised controlled clinical trials have shown that instilling 0.5% aqueous povidone iodine eye drops, an antiseptic agent, before surgery reduces the risk of this devastating infection, with the first trial undertaken in 1991. 1

What is the best treatment for primary open-angle glaucoma?

Chronic glaucoma can be a very difficult condition to manage, particularly when patients often only present to eye departments once they have already had significant vision loss. Eye drops which lower intraocular pressure are often prescribed; however, patients may not use the eyedrops because they are expensive, can be difficult to instil, and do not improve their vision. Surgery is an option, but patients can be reluctant to undergo surgery on their only good eye, and there can be postoperative complications. Laser treatment is another option. In a recent study in Tanzania, patients were randomly allocated to Timolol 0.5% eye drops or a form of laser called Selective Laser Trabeculoplasty (SLT). 2 After one year, SLT was found to be superior to drops for high-pressure glaucoma.

Why don't older adults in England have their eyes examined?

Focus group discussions among older adults in England revealed that, despite most participants being eligible for state-funded check-ups, wearing spectacles was associated with the appearance of being frail. They were also afraid of appearing to ‘fail’ tests, and had concerns about the cost of spectacles. 3

How cost effective is a diabetic retinopathy screening programme?

An economic evaluation in South Africa compared alternative interventions. Screening using non-mydriatic retinal photographs taken by a technician supervised by an ophthalmic nurse and read by a general medical officer was cost-effective and the savings made allowed the government to fund disability grants for people who went blind. 4

Acknowledgements

Stephen Gichuhi and Nyawira Mwangi contributed to preliminary work on this article.

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Personal carbon footprint of the rich is vastly underestimated by rich and poor alike, study finds

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The personal carbon footprint of the richest people in society is grossly underestimated, both by the rich themselves and by those on middle and lower incomes, no matter which country they come from. At the same time, both the rich and the poor drastically overestimate the carbon footprint of the poorest people.

An international group of researchers, led by the Copenhagen Business School, the University of Basel and the University of Cambridge, surveyed 4,000 people from Denmark, India, Nigeria and the United States about inequality in personal carbon footprints – the total amount of greenhouse gases produced by a person’s activities – within their own country.

Although it is well-known that there is a large gap between the carbon footprint of the richest and poorest in society, it’s been unclear whether individuals were aware of this inequality. The four countries chosen for the survey are all different in terms of wealth, lifestyle and culture. Survey participants also differed in their personal income, with half of participants belonging to the top 10% of income in their country.

The vast majority of participants across the four countries overestimated the average personal carbon footprint of the poorest 50% and underestimated those of the richest 10% and 1%.

However, participants from the top 10% were more likely to support certain climate policies, such as increasing the price of electricity during peak periods, taxing red meat consumption or subsidising carbon dioxide removal technologies such as carbon capture and storage.

The researchers say that this may reflect generally higher education levels among high earners, a greater ability to absorb price-based policies or a stronger preference for technological solutions to the climate crisis. The results are reported in the journal Nature Climate Change .

Although the concept of a personal carbon or environmental footprint has been used for over 40 years, it became widely popularised in the mid-2000s, when the fossil fuel company BP ran a large advertising campaign encouraging people to determine and reduce their personal carbon footprint.

“There are definitely groups out there who would like to push the responsibility of reducing carbon emissions away from corporations and onto individuals, which is problematic,” said co-author Dr Ramit Debnath, Assistant Professor and Cambridge Zero Fellow at the University of Cambridge. “However, personal carbon footprints can illustrate the profound inequality within and between countries and help people identify how to live in a more climate-friendly way.”

Previous research has shown widespread misperceptions about how certain consumer behaviours affect an individual's carbon footprint. For example, recycling, shutting off the lights when leaving a room and avoiding plastic packaging are lower-impact behaviours that are overestimated in terms of how much they can reduce one’s carbon footprint. On the other end, the impact of behaviours such as red meat consumption, heating and cooling homes, and air travel all tend to be underestimated.

However, there is limited research on whether these misperceptions extend to people’s perceptions of the composition and scale of personal carbon footprints and their ability to make comparisons between different groups.

The four countries selected for the survey (Denmark, India, Nigeria and the US) were chosen due to their different per-capita carbon emissions and their levels of economic inequality. Within each country, approximately 1,000 participants were surveyed, with half of each participant group from the top 10% of their country and the other half from the bottom 90%.

Participants were asked to estimate the average personal carbon footprints specific to three income groups (the bottom 50%, the top 10%, and the top 1% of income) within their country. Most participants overestimated the average personal carbon footprint for the bottom 50% of income and underestimated the average footprints for the top 10% and top 1% of income.

“These countries are very different, but we found the rich are pretty similar no matter where you go, and their concerns are different to the rest of society,” said Debnath. “There’s a huge contrast between billionaires travelling by private jet while the rest of us drink with soggy paper straws: one of those activities has a big impact on an individual carbon footprint, and one doesn’t.”

The researchers also looked at whether people’s ideas of carbon footprint inequality were related to their support for different climate policies. They found that Danish and Nigerian participants who underestimated carbon footprint inequality were generally less supportive of climate policies. They also found that Indian participants from the top 10% were generally more supportive of climate policies, potentially reflecting their higher education and greater resources.

“Poorer people have more immediate concerns, such as how they’re going to pay their rent, or support their families,” said first author Dr Kristian Steensen Nielsen from Copenhagen Business School. “But across all income groups, people want real solutions to the climate crisis, whether those are regulatory or technological. However, the people with the highest carbon footprints bear the greatest responsibility for changing their lifestyles and reducing their footprints.”

After learning about the actual carbon footprint inequality, most participants found it slightly unfair, with those in Denmark and the United States finding it the most unfair. However, people from the top 10% generally found the inequality fairer than the general population, except in India. “This could be because they’re trying to justify their larger carbon footprints,” said Debnath.

The researchers say that more work is needed to determine the best ways to promote fairness and justice in climate action across countries, cultures and communities.

“Due to their greater financial and political influence, most climate policies reflect the interests of the richest in society and rarely involve fundamental changes to their lifestyles or social status,” said Debnath.

“Greater awareness and discussion of existing inequality in personal carbon footprints can help build political pressure to address these inequalities and develop climate solutions that work for all,” said Nielsen.

The study also involved researchers from Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Murdoch University and Oxford University. The research was supported in part by the Carlsberg Foundation, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Quadrature Climate Foundation and the Swiss National Science Foundation.

Reference: Kristian S Nielsen et al. ‘ Underestimation of personal carbon footprint inequality in four diverse countries .’ Nature Climate Change (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41558-024-02130-y 

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Title: can llms generate novel research ideas a large-scale human study with 100+ nlp researchers.

Abstract: Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have sparked optimism about their potential to accelerate scientific discovery, with a growing number of works proposing research agents that autonomously generate and validate new ideas. Despite this, no evaluations have shown that LLM systems can take the very first step of producing novel, expert-level ideas, let alone perform the entire research process. We address this by establishing an experimental design that evaluates research idea generation while controlling for confounders and performs the first head-to-head comparison between expert NLP researchers and an LLM ideation agent. By recruiting over 100 NLP researchers to write novel ideas and blind reviews of both LLM and human ideas, we obtain the first statistically significant conclusion on current LLM capabilities for research ideation: we find LLM-generated ideas are judged as more novel (p < 0.05) than human expert ideas while being judged slightly weaker on feasibility. Studying our agent baselines closely, we identify open problems in building and evaluating research agents, including failures of LLM self-evaluation and their lack of diversity in generation. Finally, we acknowledge that human judgements of novelty can be difficult, even by experts, and propose an end-to-end study design which recruits researchers to execute these ideas into full projects, enabling us to study whether these novelty and feasibility judgements result in meaningful differences in research outcome.

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Management information on recruitment to clinical research studies

Published 12 September 2024

© Crown copyright 2024

This publication is licensed under the terms of the Open Government Licence v3.0 except where otherwise stated. To view this licence, visit nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3 or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: [email protected] .

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This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/management-information-on-recruitment-to-clinical-research-studies/management-information-on-recruitment-to-clinical-research-studies

Data on the recruitment to clinical research studies, reported to the Department of Health and Social Care ( DHSC ). This release is published as management information, in accordance with the Code of Practice for Statistics , to improve transparency and support publication of the Darzi review on 12 September 2024. The Darzi review is the independent investigation of the National Health Service in England, led by Lord Darzi.

Clinical research studies are important for advancing medical knowledge and enhancing patient care. These investigations are designed to evaluate the safety, efficacy and effectiveness of new treatments, medications, devices, or interventions. Clinical research includes various types of studies, such as clinical trials and observational studies.

Clinical trials, also known as interventional studies, test new medical approaches, including drugs, vaccines and surgical procedures. They are carried out in phases to assess safety, dosing and effectiveness. Observational studies monitor and analyse the effects of specific variables on health outcomes without intervening.

By systematically investigating in this way, clinical research plays a vital role in discovering new treatments and improving healthcare practices.

Monitoring clinical research delivery

One of the ways clinical research delivery in the UK is monitored is through the UK Clinical Research Delivery Key Performance Indicators Report . This report, previously known as the Research Status Report, brings together data from the National Institute for Health and Care Research ( NIHR ) and the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. It monitors progress on delivering parts of the government’s vision for UK clinical research delivery. The performance indicators measure trends in:

• the speed and predictability of regulatory and study set-up timelines
• the delivery of research to time and target
• overall recruitment levels

The report is published monthly by DHSC and is being used to support the development of policies to encourage clinical research delivery.

This publication focuses specifically on clinical research recruitment data from the UK Clinical Research Delivery Key Performance Indicators Report from April 2014 onwards. It is a supplementary management information release, showing detailed tables behind the recruitment charts published in June 2024’s UK Clinical Research Delivery Key Performance Indicators Report.

Definition of a research study

Research is defined in the UK Policy Framework for Health and Social Care Research as the attempt to derive generalisable or transferable new knowledge to answer or refine relevant questions with scientifically sound methods. This excludes: audit, needs assessments, quality improvement and other local service evaluations. It also excludes routine banking of biological samples or data except where this activity is integral to a self-contained research project designed to test a clear hypothesis.

This definition applies to all studies for which NIHR Clinical Research Network support is sought regardless of the study type or research funder.

Table 1 shows the number of participants recruited into studies since April 2014, held on the NIHR Clinical Research Network’s central portfolio management system.

The central portfolio management system consists of all studies held on the Clinical Research Network portfolio, as well as some studies held on the network portfolios of Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

The data includes recruitment to both interventional and observational studies. The data represents the total number of participants recruited for a given month, based on the month and year the recruitment notification was received.

Table 1: recruitment to clinical research studies

Source: NIHR Clinical Research Network, central portfolio management system

Table 2 shows the number of participants recruited into studies since April 2014, held on the NIHR Clinical Research Network’s central portfolio management system.

Table 2 includes recruitment to 3 study types:

• commercial contract studies. These are studies sponsored and fully funded by the life sciences industry
• commercial collaborative studies. These are studies typically funded, wholly or in part, by the life sciences industry and sponsored by a combination of life sciences industry and non-commercial organisations. This category has previously been included in non-commercial figures but it is now being presented separately to better represent the breadth of commercial studies. Commercial collaborative studies are supported in the same way as other non-commercial studies
• non-commercial studies. These are studies sponsored and wholly funded by one or more non-commercial organisations, including medical research charities, universities and public funders such as NIHR and UK Research and Innovation

The data includes recruitment to both interventional and observational studies.

Table 2: recruitment to clinical research studies broken down by study type, 2014 to 2024

Methodology and quality note

Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Recruitment is only recorded in the central portfolio management system if it meets the definitions of recruitment as outlined in the NIHR Clinical Research Network Recruitment Policy Document . For example, recruitment data is not collected for studies classified as non-consenting. These are exceptional circumstances where no form of consent can be obtained.

Only research activity with a status of confirmed and provisional is included. Research activity which is indicated as inaccurate (queried) is excluded from figures.

Confirmed status includes manually uploaded data or data from the local portfolio management system that has been confirmed as accurate by the Chief Investigator, their representative or a representative of the commercial sponsor or contract research organisation.

Provisional status is given to data from the local portfolio management system that has yet to be confirmed or that requires reconfirmation following queries.

Data source and coverage

The data has been sourced from the central portfolio management system. The central portfolio management system consists of all studies held on the Clinical Research Network portfolio, as well as some studies held on the network portfolios of Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

The data is recorded monthly from April 2014 to March 2024. For the purpose of the UK Clinical Research Delivery Key Performance Indicators Report, monthly snapshots are taken according to a data cut schedule. The snapshot used in this publication was taken on 21 June 2024.

Data caveats

The data does not show recruitment to the whole clinical research system, only recruitment to studies on the central portfolio management system. Therefore, this data will be an underestimate of total clinical research recruitment in the UK.

The data is not exclusive to NHS sites and includes recruitment to non- NHS sites.

While data covers the whole of the UK, data relating to studies led by devolved administrations may be incomplete. This is because they are only included in the central portfolio management system when added by the devolved administrations.

The quality of the data is dependent on the accuracy and timeliness of recruitment data being recorded in the system.

There is often a lag between activity taking place at a study site and data being recorded in the system. This means that previous months’ data may be updated retrospectively. Changes in recruitment for individual recent months should not be taken as an indication of overall trend in recruitment.

From the 2023 to 2024 financial year onwards, the data for the commercial collaborative category will be more robust. This is due to data quality improvements linked to reporting this category separately, instead of classifying activities as purely commercial or non-commercial. Not all studies will have been reviewed retrospectively and re-classified where necessary, particularly studies that had already closed.

Using the data

The data cannot be used for:

• measuring overall UK study recruitment as the data is only on studies on the central portfolio management system (not activity of the whole research environment). It is unknown what proportion of studies in the UK at that particular point in time are contributing to the figures
• comparing (portfolio) recruitment over the time. The network as an organisation and its remit has changed significantly over time. Caution should be taken with time comparisons as portfolio and associated data collection may have changed
• UK-wide data within the central portfolio management system across years. It has only been in recent years that UK-wide data for commercial (for example) has been collected into the central portfolio management system

The portfolio balance between observational studies and interventional ones will influence the numbers. For example, if at a particular time, the portfolio has some large sample size observational studies, this will affect recruitment numbers and make it difficult to compare to other years.

Recruitment from private sites may not be collected and so may not be included in the data.

If you have any questions in relation to these statistics, please contact [email protected] .

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Is Sarsaparilla Good For You? A Look at the Research on Health Claims

• Side Effects

Precautions

Interactions, similar supplements.

• Sources & What To Look For

Sarsaparilla is a plant species that has been used for easing arthritis symptoms, fighting infections, relieving skin issues, and potentially treating cancer. Research on the supplement's health benefits is limited, but it is rich in compounds that have anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antibacterial properties.

There are few reported side effects of sarsaparilla, but it may not be safe for everyone. Some people shouldn't take this supplement, including those who are pregnant or breastfeeding, or those taking the heart medication digoxin.

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not regulate supplements the way it regulates prescription drugs. That means some supplement products may not contain what the label says. When choosing a supplement , look for third-party tested products and consult a healthcare provider, registered dietitian nutritionist (RD or RDN), or pharmacist.

Verywell / Getty Images

Purported Benefits of Sarsaparilla

The sarsaparilla root has been used medicinally for centuries. Many parts of the sarsaparilla plant are used as flavorings in foods and beverages. Interestingly, in the United States, the once-common drink named sarsaparilla didn’t contain any ingredients from the plant—it contained flavoring from the sassafras plant.

Anti-Cancer Effects

Sarsaparilla is believed to be an antioxidant, which can lower your body’s levels of free radicals. Free radicals are molecules out of balance, and high levels of them are believed to contribute to many diseases, including  cancer .

While several studies suggest that sarsaparilla extract can slow the growth and migration of  cancer cells and possibly even kill them, these results were seen in mice and not conducted in human trials.

Researchers have identified several mechanisms they believe are at work in the anti-cancer processes of sarsaparilla. Preliminary studies have found that sarsaparilla was able to stop cancer from spreading by inhibiting the signaling of transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-ß1).

Other research by some of the same scientists suggested sarsaparilla promoted beneficial changes in cancerous cells by slowing growth and increasing cancer cell death.

However, these findings lack sufficient evidence and need further investigation in human trials.

Antioxidant Effects and Skin Health

Sarsaparilla’s antioxidant properties may also make it beneficial to your skin. In a Korean study, researchers found the Smilax glabra root appeared to significantly inhibit oxidative damage and slow some processes associated with aging.  Sarsaparilla also seemed to increase several beneficial substances in the body and decrease destructive ones, which could contribute to healthier-looking skin.

Additionally, one study suggested that astilbin , a flavonoid in sarsaparilla, shows promise as a treatment for  psoriasis .

Anti-Inflammatory Properties

A few preliminary studies support the claims that sarsaparilla is an anti-inflammatory, which could mean it has a role in treating inflammatory diseases, such as  hepatitis  and  rheumatoid arthritis .

Another study suggested that two extracts of the sarsaparilla plant could suppress multiple indicators of  inflammation , including nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interleukin-6.

Effects on Oxidative Stress and Kidney Function

Researchers looked at the potential of astilbin—a flavonoid derived from sarsaparilla species—for improving kidney function.

Oxidative stress, associated with free radicals and nitric oxide, can harm the kidneys. As an antioxidant, astilbin appears to suppress oxidative stress and, thereby, offers some kidney protection.

These findings may be used to support claims of sarsaparilla's traditional detoxifying effect. However, the need to detox isn't supported by medical findings in people without severe liver and/or kidney disease. Therefore, it is important to be careful with products claiming to have detoxifying effects. Be sure to consult with your healthcare provider before using any such supplements.

Other Claims

Sarsaparilla has also been used in folk medicine to address other health issues, such as the following:

• Liver injury
• Hyperinsulinemia   (abnormally high insulin levels)
• Skin issues
• Syphilis  

Medical research has not proven the use of sarsaparilla for these conditions. And sarsaparilla hasn’t been studied for all these conditions. Some of these uses have limited support from preliminary studies, but evidence is insufficient. Other claims have been disproven.

What Are the Side Effects of Sarsaparilla?

Sarsaparilla is generally considered a safe supplement with few side effects. As with all supplements, an allergic reaction is possible.

Common Side Effects

There are few known side effects of sarsaparilla. The most common side effect is stomach irritation.

If you should experience this side effect while taking sarsaparilla, stop using it and consult with your healthcare provider.

Severe Side Effects

No severe side effects of sarsaparilla have been documented. One study noted that sarsaparilla did not show toxicity at the cellular level. However, as with all supplements, there is a risk of allergic reactions. Anaphylaxis, a severe allergic reaction, is possible.

Signs of anaphylaxis include swelling of the tongue and throat and hives. If you experience any of these symptoms, seek medical assistance immediately. Anaphylaxis can be life-threatening.

The lack of research on sarsaparilla means there is a lack of information on how it may affect certain groups or populations. It is not known how sarsaparilla will affect all health conditions.

There is no data on sarsaparilla’s safety for pregnant or breastfeeding people. These populations should likely avoid using it.

Dosage: How Much Sarsaparilla Should I Take?

Always speak with a healthcare provider before taking a supplement to ensure that the supplement and dosage are appropriate for your individual needs.

When taking a capsule, it is recommended to take one to four grams of dried root. If you are taking a sarsaparilla tincture, the suggested dose is 5 to 10 milliliters (mL) per day.

These doses are only suggestions. Always discuss the dosage amount with your healthcare provider.

What Happens if I Take Too Much Sarsaparilla?

Sarsaparilla has no known upper limit. The lack of research and clinical data gives no evidence of what's considered too much.

When considering using sarsaparilla, it is best to discuss dosage with your healthcare provider.

Sarsaparilla may interact with several drugs. However, because of the small amount of research on sarsaparilla and its components, there may be other drugs with which it may interact.

Digoxin is a drug that helps the heart. Sarsaparilla may affect how much of this drug is absorbed into the body. If more digoxin is potentially absorbed, its effects may increase.

Sarsaparilla may increase the effects of diuretics and reduce methotrexate blood levels. However, the research is based on animal studies. Whether sarsaparilla would have the same drug interactions in humans is unknown.

It is important to carefully read a supplement's ingredient list and nutrition facts panel to know which ingredients and how much of each is included. Review the supplement label with your healthcare provider to discuss potential interactions with foods, other supplements, and medications.

Supplements that may have similar effects to sarsaparilla may be but are not limited to the following:

• Black cohosh ( Actaea racemosa )
• Meadowsweet ( Filipendula ulmaria )
• Nettle ( Urtica dioica )
• Turmeric ( Curcuma longa )
• Boswellia ( Boswellia serrata )
• Wild yam ( Dioscorea villosa )
• Devil's claw ( Proboscidea parviflora )
• Ginger ( Zingiber officinale )

Sarsaparilla Supplement Facts

• Active Ingredient(s): Astilbin, phenylpropanoids, phenolic acids, flavonoids
• Alternate Name(s): Greenbriar, catbrier, greenbrier, Smilax glabra, Smilax ornata, Smilax officinalis, Smilax aristolochiaefolia, Smilax febrifuga, Smilax japicanga, Smilax regelii
• Legal Status: Herbal supplement
• Suggested Dose: Dosage varies.
• Safety Considerations: Taking with digoxin or methotrexate, or in pregnant or breastfeeding people

Sources of Sarsaparilla and What To Look For

You can find sarsaparilla supplements in numerous forms. They can be found on the internet and in various grocery stores.

Modern forms of the drink called sarsaparilla don’t generally contain any part of the plant—it may not even contain the plant that the drink was made from historically (sassafras).

Instead, most of them now contain artificial flavors. That means drinking sarsaparilla soda will not give you the same benefits that consuming the root might.

Sarsaparilla Supplements

Sarsaparilla supplements come in capsule, tablet, tincture, and powder forms. These supplements are available over-the-counter (OTC) without a prescription.

Use caution when purchasing supplements, especially online, as they are not regulated.

Clinical studies have not verified the many traditional medicinal uses of sarsaparilla. There is early research on a few of the suspected health benefits of sarsaparilla, including its effects on cancer, inflammation, skin issues, and kidney health. While preliminary research is promising, more clinical data is necessary to validate any claim of potential health benefits of sarsaparilla.

It is important to discuss taking sarsaparilla with your healthcare provider. There is little information on dosing, precautions, and interactions. For this reason, it is not recommended for use by pregnant or breastfeeding people.

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She T, Feng J, Lian S, et al. Sarsaparilla (smilax glabra rhizome) extract activates redox-dependent atm/atr pathway to inhibit cancer cell growth by s phase arrest, apoptosis, and autophagy . Nutrition and Cancer . 2017;69(8):1281-1289. doi:10.1080/01635581.2017.1362447

Park G, Kim T-mi, Kim JH, et al.  Antioxidant effects of the sarsaparilla via scavenging of reactive oxygen species and induction of antioxidant enzymes in human dermal fibroblasts .  Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology . 2014;38(1):305-315. doi:10.1016/j.etap.2014.06.009

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Chuan-Li L, Wei Z, Min W, et al. Polysaccharides from smilax glabra inhibit the pro-inflammatory mediators via ERK1/2 and JNK pathways in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells . Carbohydrate Polymers . 2015;122:428-436. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.11.035

Wang M, Zhao J, Zhang N, Chen J. Astilbin improves potassium oxonate-induced hyperuricemia and kidney injury through regulating oxidative stress and inflammation response in mice . Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy . 2016;83:975-988. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2016.07.025

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Park G, Kim TM, Kim JH, Oh MS. Antioxidant effects of the sarsaparilla via scavenging of reactive oxygen species and induction of antioxidant enzymes in human dermal fibroblasts . Environmental toxicology and pharmacology. 2014;38(1):305-15. doi:10.1016/j.etap.2014.06.009

She T, Feng J, Lian S, et al. Sarsaparilla (Smilax glabra rhizome) extract activates redox-dependent ATM/ATR pathway to inhibit cancer cell growth by S phase arrest, apoptosis, and autophagy . Nutrition and cancer. 2017;69(8):1281-1289. doi:10.1080/01635581.2017.1362447

She t, Zhao C, Feng J, et al. Sarsaparilla (Smilax glabra rhizome) extract inhibits migration and invasion of cancer cells by suppressing TGF- ß1 pathway . PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0118287. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118287

Wang M, Zhao J, Zhang N, Chen J. Astilbin improves potassium oxonate-induced hyperuricemia and kidney injury through regulation oxidative stress and inflammation response in mice . Biomedicine and pharmacology. 83:975-988. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2016.07.025 400

Zhang C, Xu Q, Tan X, et al. Astilbin decreases proliferation and improves differentiation in HaCaT keratinocytes . Biomedicine and pharmacotherapy. 2017;93:713-720. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2017.05.127

Zhou M, Huang L, Li L, et al. New furostanol saponins with anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities from the rhizomes of Smilax davidiana . Steroids. 2017;127:62-68. doi:10.1016/j.steroids.2017.08.013

By Dawn Sheldon, RN Dawn Sheldon, RN, is a registered nurse and health writer. She is passionate about sharing her knowledge and empowering others.

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The Big City Is Vibrant. Birds There Might Be Getting Less So.

Recent studies show that certain feather pigments can help neutralize toxic pollution. It means darker, duller birds could have a survival advantage.

By Marta Zaraska

Some popular city dwellers appear to be losing their colorful allure, and not just the dirty birds.

According to a study published this summer in the journal Landscape and Planning that looked at 547 bird species in China, birds that live in cities are duller and darker on average than their rural counterparts. A similar conclusion emerged from an analysis of 59 studies published in March in Biological Reviews : Urban feathers are not as bright, with yellow, orange and red feathers affected most.

Often, city birds are covered in grime. But even if you could give them all a good bird bath, chances are their brightness still wouldn’t match that of their country cousins. That’s because of the way pollution, and heavy metals in particular, can interact with melanin, a pigment that makes feathers black, brown and gray.

Studies show that melanin can bind to heavy metals like lead. That means toxic chemicals may be more likely to be stored in plumage in darker and duller birds. And that, in turn, can confer a survival advantage.

“The more melanin you accumulate, the better able you are to sequester these harmful compounds in feathers,” said Kevin McGraw, a biologist at Michigan State University who studies the colors of animals to understand the costs, benefits and evolution of visual signals.

Urban pollution affects avian colors in other ways, too. Research shows that, compared with rural plants, city trees store fewer natural pigments called carotenoids. And pollution is the likely reason. Carotenoids are produced by plants, algae and fungi. They’re what makes red peppers red and carrots orange.

When leaves are low on these pigments, the effects go up the food chain: Leaf-munching caterpillars become deficient in carotenoids, and so do caterpillar-munching birds.

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Methodology

• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on September 5, 2024.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

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Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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