aqa a level psychology experimental design

Experimental Design: Types, Examples & Methods

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to different groups in an experiment. Types of design include repeated measures, independent groups, and matched pairs designs.

Probably the most common way to design an experiment in psychology is to divide the participants into two groups, the experimental group and the control group, and then introduce a change to the experimental group, not the control group.

The researcher must decide how he/she will allocate their sample to the different experimental groups.  For example, if there are 10 participants, will all 10 participants participate in both groups (e.g., repeated measures), or will the participants be split in half and take part in only one group each?

Three types of experimental designs are commonly used:

1. Independent Measures

Independent measures design, also known as between-groups , is an experimental design where different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable.  This means that each condition of the experiment includes a different group of participants.

This should be done by random allocation, ensuring that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to one group.

Independent measures involve using two separate groups of participants, one in each condition. For example:

• Con : More people are needed than with the repeated measures design (i.e., more time-consuming).
• Pro : Avoids order effects (such as practice or fatigue) as people participate in one condition only.  If a person is involved in several conditions, they may become bored, tired, and fed up by the time they come to the second condition or become wise to the requirements of the experiment!
• Con : Differences between participants in the groups may affect results, for example, variations in age, gender, or social background.  These differences are known as participant variables (i.e., a type of extraneous variable ).
• Control : After the participants have been recruited, they should be randomly assigned to their groups. This should ensure the groups are similar, on average (reducing participant variables).

2. Repeated Measures Design

Repeated Measures design is an experimental design where the same participants participate in each independent variable condition.  This means that each experiment condition includes the same group of participants.

Repeated Measures design is also known as within-groups or within-subjects design .

• Pro : As the same participants are used in each condition, participant variables (i.e., individual differences) are reduced.
• Con : There may be order effects. Order effects refer to the order of the conditions affecting the participants’ behavior.  Performance in the second condition may be better because the participants know what to do (i.e., practice effect).  Or their performance might be worse in the second condition because they are tired (i.e., fatigue effect). This limitation can be controlled using counterbalancing.
• Pro : Fewer people are needed as they participate in all conditions (i.e., saves time).
• Control : To combat order effects, the researcher counter-balances the order of the conditions for the participants.  Alternating the order in which participants perform in different conditions of an experiment.

Counterbalancing

Suppose we used a repeated measures design in which all of the participants first learned words in “loud noise” and then learned them in “no noise.”

We expect the participants to learn better in “no noise” because of order effects, such as practice. However, a researcher can control for order effects using counterbalancing.

The sample would be split into two groups: experimental (A) and control (B).  For example, group 1 does ‘A’ then ‘B,’ and group 2 does ‘B’ then ‘A.’ This is to eliminate order effects.

Although order effects occur for each participant, they balance each other out in the results because they occur equally in both groups.

3. Matched Pairs Design

A matched pairs design is an experimental design where pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables, such as age or socioeconomic status. One member of each pair is then placed into the experimental group and the other member into the control group .

One member of each matched pair must be randomly assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group.

• Con : If one participant drops out, you lose 2 PPs’ data.
• Pro : Reduces participant variables because the researcher has tried to pair up the participants so that each condition has people with similar abilities and characteristics.
• Con : Very time-consuming trying to find closely matched pairs.
• Pro : It avoids order effects, so counterbalancing is not necessary.
• Con : Impossible to match people exactly unless they are identical twins!
• Control : Members of each pair should be randomly assigned to conditions. However, this does not solve all these problems.

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to an experiment’s different conditions (or IV levels). There are three types:

1. Independent measures / between-groups : Different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable.

2. Repeated measures /within groups : The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable.

3. Matched pairs : Each condition uses different participants, but they are matched in terms of important characteristics, e.g., gender, age, intelligence, etc.

Learning Check

Read about each of the experiments below. For each experiment, identify (1) which experimental design was used; and (2) why the researcher might have used that design.

1 . To compare the effectiveness of two different types of therapy for depression, depressed patients were assigned to receive either cognitive therapy or behavior therapy for a 12-week period.

The researchers attempted to ensure that the patients in the two groups had similar severity of depressed symptoms by administering a standardized test of depression to each participant, then pairing them according to the severity of their symptoms.

2 . To assess the difference in reading comprehension between 7 and 9-year-olds, a researcher recruited each group from a local primary school. They were given the same passage of text to read and then asked a series of questions to assess their understanding.

3 . To assess the effectiveness of two different ways of teaching reading, a group of 5-year-olds was recruited from a primary school. Their level of reading ability was assessed, and then they were taught using scheme one for 20 weeks.

At the end of this period, their reading was reassessed, and a reading improvement score was calculated. They were then taught using scheme two for a further 20 weeks, and another reading improvement score for this period was calculated. The reading improvement scores for each child were then compared.

4 . To assess the effect of the organization on recall, a researcher randomly assigned student volunteers to two conditions.

Condition one attempted to recall a list of words that were organized into meaningful categories; condition two attempted to recall the same words, randomly grouped on the page.

Experiment Terminology

Ecological validity.

The degree to which an investigation represents real-life experiences.

Experimenter effects

These are the ways that the experimenter can accidentally influence the participant through their appearance or behavior.

Demand characteristics

The clues in an experiment lead the participants to think they know what the researcher is looking for (e.g., the experimenter’s body language).

Independent variable (IV)

The variable the experimenter manipulates (i.e., changes) is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable (DV)

Variable the experimenter measures. This is the outcome (i.e., the result) of a study.

Extraneous variables (EV)

All variables which are not independent variables but could affect the results (DV) of the experiment. Extraneous variables should be controlled where possible.

Confounding variables

Variable(s) that have affected the results (DV), apart from the IV. A confounding variable could be an extraneous variable that has not been controlled.

Random Allocation

Randomly allocating participants to independent variable conditions means that all participants should have an equal chance of taking part in each condition.

The principle of random allocation is to avoid bias in how the experiment is carried out and limit the effects of participant variables.

Order effects

Changes in participants’ performance due to their repeating the same or similar test more than once. Examples of order effects include:

(i) practice effect: an improvement in performance on a task due to repetition, for example, because of familiarity with the task;

(ii) fatigue effect: a decrease in performance of a task due to repetition, for example, because of boredom or tiredness.

Experimental Method

The experimental method.

Experiments are one of the most popular and useful research methods in psychology. The key types are laboratory and field experiments.

Role in psychology

• Experiments play a major role throughout psychology.
• As a method, experiments allow one variable to be manipulated while keeping everything the same.
• This allows researchers to show cause and effect.

Laboratory experiments

• Some experiments take place under controlled condition, such as in a university room supervised by the researchers.
• These are called laboratory (or ‘lab’) experiments.
• The advantage of laboratory experiments is that they increase the level of control that a researcher can have.
• But they reduce the level of ecological validity of the research.

Field experiments

• Other experiments take place in a participant’s natural surroundings, such as their school or workplace.
• These are called field experiments.
• The advantage of field experiments is that they increase the ecological validity of the study by making the surroundings more realistic.
• But they reduce the level of control.

True experiments

• Both field experiments and lab experiments control the variables under investigation, and randomly allocate participants to groups.
• These characteristics mean that they are true experiments.

Quasi-Experiments

Quasi-experiments are not true experiments because they lack control over the experimental groups used.

Lack of random allocation

• For example, if one of the variables under investigation is gender, people can’t be randomly allocated to ‘male’ and ‘female’ conditions.
• A study is termed a quasi-experiment if it lacks random allocation to groups but is like a true experiment in most or all other ways.

Examples of quasi-experiments

• Other examples of quasi-experiments include studies which compare different types of personality (e.g. introverts versus extroverts) or compare people who have a psychological disorder with a control group who do not.
• Such studies cannot randomly allocate people to groups.

Quasi vs lab

• Quasi-experiments could take place in a lab, and all other aspects of the research and data gathering can be controlled.
• This means they are easy to mix up with laboratory experiments.

Natural Experiments

Natural experiments are logically similar to true experiments, but the situation happens by itself and so is completely uncontrolled by the researcher.

• For example, it wouldn’t be ethically correct to expose people to a lot of stress to investigate its effects.
• In such situations, a researcher may use a natural experiment.

Similarity to true experiments

• For example, they could compare the educational outcomes of school pupils who experience a lot of stress versus those who do not.

Differences to true experiments

• In contrast to a true experiment or a quasi-experiment, the variable under investigation happens by itself and so is completely uncontrolled by the researcher.
• The researcher also has no control at all over who is in each ‘experimental’ group.

Location of natural experiments

• Because natural experiments are not set up by the researcher, they always take place in participants’ everyday surroundings such as their home or school.
• This means they are easy to mix up with field experiments.

1 Social Influence

1.1 Social Influence

1.1.1 Conformity

1.1.2 Asch (1951)

1.1.3 Sherif (1935)

1.1.4 Conformity to Social Roles

1.1.5 BBC Prison Study

1.1.6 End of Topic Test - Conformity

1.1.7 Obedience

1.1.8 Analysing Milgram's Experiment

1.1.9 Agentic State & Legitimate Authority

1.1.10 Variables of Obedience

1.1.11 Resistance to Social Influence

1.1.12 Minority Influence & Social Change

1.1.13 Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory

1.1.14 End of Topic Test - Social Influences

1.1.15 Exam-Style Question - Conformity

1.1.16 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence

2.1.1 Multi-Store Model of Memory

2.1.2 Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory

2.1.3 Long-Term Memory

2.1.4 Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory

2.1.5 Duration Studies

2.1.6 Capacity Studies

2.1.7 Coding Studies

2.1.8 The Working Memory Model

2.1.9 The Working Memory Model 2

2.1.10 Support for the Working Memory Model

2.1.11 Explanations for Forgetting

2.1.12 Studies on Interference

2.1.13 Cue-Dependent Forgetting

2.1.14 Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer

2.1.15 Eye Witness Testimony Loftus

2.1.16 Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion

2.1.17 Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions

2.1.18 Cognitive Interview

2.1.19 Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher

2.1.20 End of Topic Test - Memory

2.1.21 Exam-Style Question - Memory

2.1.22 A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory

3 Attachment

3.1 Attachment

3.1.1 Caregiver-Infant Interaction

3.1.2 Condon & Sander (1974)

3.1.3 Schaffer & Emerson (1964)

3.1.4 Multiple Attachments

3.1.5 Studies on the Role of the Father

3.1.6 Animal Studies of Attachment

3.1.7 Explanations of Attachment

3.1.8 Attachment Types - Strange Situation

3.1.9 Cultural Differences in Attachment

3.1.10 Disruption of Attachment

3.1.11 Disruption of Attachment - Privation

3.1.12 Overcoming the Effects of Disruption

3.1.13 The Effects of Institutionalisation

3.1.14 Early Attachment

3.1.15 Critical Period of Attachment

3.1.16 End of Topic Test - Attachment

3.1.17 Exam-Style Question - Attachment

3.1.18 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment

4 Psychopathology

4.1 Psychopathology

4.1.1 Definitions of Abnormality

4.1.2 Definitions of Abnormality 2

4.1.3 Phobias, Depression & OCD

4.1.4 Phobias: Behavioural Approach

4.1.5 Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias

4.1.6 Depression: Cognitive Approach

4.1.7 OCD: Biological Approach

4.1.8 Evidence for the Biological Approach

4.1.9 End of Topic Test - Psychopathy

4.1.10 Exam-Style Question - Phobias

4.1.11 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology

5 Approaches in Psychology

5.1 Approaches in Psychology

5.1.1 Psychology as a Science

5.1.2 Origins of Psychology

5.1.3 Reductionism & Problems with Introspection

5.1.4 The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning

5.1.5 Pavlov's Experiment

5.1.6 Little Albert Study

5.1.7 The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning

5.1.8 Social Learning Theory

5.1.9 The Cognitive Approach 1

5.1.10 The Cognitive Approach 2

5.1.11 The Biological Approach

5.1.12 Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies

5.1.13 Brain Scanning

5.1.14 Structure of Personality & Little Hans

5.1.15 The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)

5.1.16 Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)

5.1.17 Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)

5.1.18 Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)

5.1.19 End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology

5.1.20 Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology

5.2 Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)

5.2.1 Psychodynamic Approach

5.2.2 Cognitive Approach

5.2.3 Biological Approach

5.2.4 Behavioural Approach

5.2.5 End of Topic Test - Comparison of Approaches

6 Biopsychology

6.1 Biopsychology

6.1.1 Nervous System Divisions

6.1.2 Neuron Structure & Function

6.1.3 Neurotransmitters

6.1.4 Endocrine System Function

6.1.5 Fight or Flight Response

6.1.6 The Brain (A2 only)

6.1.7 Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)

6.1.8 Studying the Brain (A2 only)

6.1.9 CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations

6.1.10 Biological Rhythms (A2 only)

6.1.11 Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)

6.1.12 End of Topic Test - Biopsychology

6.1.13 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology

7 Research Methods

7.1 Research Methods

7.1.1 Experimental Method

7.1.2 Observational Techniques

7.1.3 Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation

7.1.4 Self-Report Techniques

7.1.5 Correlations

7.1.6 Exam-Style Question - Research Methods

7.1.7 End of Topic Test - Research Methods

7.2 Scientific Processes

7.2.1 Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling

7.2.2 Pilot Studies & Design

7.2.3 Questionnaires

7.2.4 Variables & Control

7.2.5 Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects

7.2.6 Ethics

7.2.7 Limitations of Ethical Guidelines

7.2.8 Consent & Protection from Harm Studies

7.2.9 Peer Review & The Economy

7.2.10 Validity (A2 only)

7.2.11 Reliability (A2 only)

7.2.12 Features of Science (A2 only)

7.2.13 Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)

7.2.14 Scientific Report (A2 only)

7.2.15 Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)

7.2.16 End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes

7.3 Data Handling & Analysis

7.3.1 Types of Data

7.3.2 Descriptive Statistics

7.3.3 Correlation

7.3.4 Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics

7.3.5 Presentation & Display of Data

7.3.6 Levels of Measurement (A2 only)

7.3.7 Content Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.8 Case Studies (A2 only)

7.3.9 Thematic Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.10 End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis

7.4 Inferential Testing

7.4.1 Introduction to Inferential Testing

7.4.2 Sign Test

7.4.3 Piaget Conservation Experiment

7.4.4 Non-Parametric Tests

8 Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1 Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1.1 Culture Bias

8.1.2 Sub-Culture Bias

8.1.3 Gender Bias

8.1.4 Ethnocentrism

8.1.5 Cross Cultural Research

8.1.6 Free Will & Determinism

8.1.7 Comparison of Free Will & Determinism

8.1.8 Reductionism & Holism

8.1.9 Reductionist & Holistic Approaches

8.1.10 Nature-Nurture Debate

8.1.11 Interactionist Approach

8.1.12 Nature-Nurture Methods

8.1.13 Nature-Nurture Approaches

8.1.14 Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches

8.1.15 Socially Sensitive Research

8.1.16 End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates

9 Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)

9.1 Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)

9.1.1 Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour

9.1.2 Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection

9.1.3 Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour

9.1.4 Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure

9.1.5 Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory

9.1.6 Self Disclosure in Computer Communication

9.1.7 Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes

9.1.8 Matching Hypothesis Studies

9.1.9 Factors Affecting Physical Attraction

9.1.10 Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1

9.1.11 Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2

9.1.12 Evaluation of Filter Theory

9.1.13 End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships

9.2 Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)

9.2.1 Social Exchange Theory

9.2.2 Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory

9.2.3 Equity Theory

9.2.4 Evaluation of Equity Theory

9.2.5 Rusbult’s Investment Model

9.2.6 Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model

9.2.7 Relationship Breakdown

9.2.8 Studies on Relationship Breakdown

9.2.9 Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown

9.2.10 End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships

9.3 Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)

9.3.1 Virtual Relationships in Social Media

9.3.2 Evaluation of Reduced Cues & Hyperpersonal

9.3.3 Parasocial Relationships

9.3.4 Attachment Theory & Parasocial Relationships

9.3.5 Evaluation of Parasocial Relationship Theories

9.3.6 End of Topic Test - Virtual & Parasocial Realtions

10 Option 1: Gender (A2 only)

10.1 Gender (A2 only)

10.1.1 Sex, Gender & Androgyny

10.1.2 Gender Identity Disorder

10.1.3 Biological & Social Explanations of GID

10.1.4 Biological Influences on Gender

10.1.5 Effects of Hormones on Gender

10.1.6 End of Topic Test - Gender 1

10.1.7 Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy

10.1.8 Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory

10.1.9 Gender Schema Theory

10.1.10 Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1

10.1.11 Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2

10.1.12 Social Approach to Gender Development

10.1.13 Criticisms of Social Theory

10.1.14 End of Topic Test - Gender 2

10.1.15 Media Influence on Gender Development

10.1.16 Cross Cultural Research

10.1.17 Childcare & Gender Roles

10.1.18 End of Topic Test - Gender 3

11 Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1 Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1

11.1.2 Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2

11.1.3 Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration

11.1.4 Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)

11.1.5 Conservation & Class Inclusion

11.1.6 Evaluation of Piaget

11.1.7 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1

11.1.8 Vygotsky

11.1.9 Evaluation of Vygotsky

11.1.10 Baillargeon

11.1.11 Baillargeon's studies

11.1.12 Evaluation of Baillargeon

11.1.13 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2

11.1.14 Sense of Self & Theory of Mind

11.1.15 Baron-Cohen Studies

11.1.16 Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking

11.1.17 Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.18 Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.19 Important Issues in Social Neuroscience

11.1.20 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3

11.1.21 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development

12 Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)

12.1 Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)

12.1.1 Classification & Diagnosis

12.1.2 Reliability & Validity of Diagnosis

12.1.3 Gender & Cultural Bias

12.1.4 Pinto (2017) & Copeland (1971)

12.1.5 End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Diagnosis

12.2 Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)

12.2.1 Family-Based Psychological Explanations

12.2.2 Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations

12.2.3 Cognitive Explanations

12.2.4 Drug Therapies

12.2.5 Evaluation of Drug Therapies

12.2.6 Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia

12.2.7 Dopamine Hypothesis

12.2.8 End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1

12.2.9 Psychological Therapies 1

12.2.10 Psychological Therapies 2

12.2.11 Evaluation of Psychological Therapies

12.2.12 Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model

12.2.13 Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment

12.2.14 Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach

12.2.15 End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2

13 Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1 Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1.1 Explanations for Food Preferences

13.1.2 Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)

13.1.3 Control of Eating Behaviours

13.1.4 Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin

13.1.5 Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa

13.1.6 Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory

13.1.7 Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory

13.1.8 Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory

13.1.9 Biological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.10 Biological Explanations: Studies

13.1.11 Psychological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.12 Psychological Explanations: Studies

13.1.13 End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour

14 Option 2: Stress (A2 only)

14.1 Stress (A2 only)

14.1.1 Physiology of Stress

14.1.2 Role of Stress in Illness

14.1.3 Role of Stress in Illness: Studies

14.1.4 Social Readjustment Rating Scales

14.1.5 Hassles & Uplifts Scales

14.1.6 Stress, Workload & Control

14.1.7 Stress Level Studies

14.1.8 End of Topic Test - Stress 1

14.1.9 Physiological Measures of Stress

14.1.10 Individual Differences

14.1.11 Stress & Gender

14.1.12 Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress

14.1.13 Stress Inoculation Therapy

14.1.14 Social Support & Stress

14.1.15 End of Topic Test - Stress 2

15 Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)

15.1 Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)

15.1.1 Neural Mechanisms

15.1.2 Serotonin

15.1.3 Hormonal Mechanisms

15.1.4 Genetic Factors

15.1.5 Genetic Factors 2

15.1.6 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1

15.1.7 Ethological Explanation

15.1.8 Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern

15.1.9 Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.10 Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy

15.1.11 Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.12 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2

15.2 Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)

15.2.1 Social Psychological Explanation

15.2.2 Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression

15.2.3 Social Psychological Explanation 2

15.2.4 Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1

15.2.5 Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2

15.2.6 Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)

15.2.7 Deindividuation

15.2.8 Deindividuation 2

15.2.9 Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)

15.2.10 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

15.2.11 Institutional Aggression: Prisons

15.2.12 Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational

15.2.13 Influence of Computer Games

15.2.14 Influence of Television

15.2.15 Evaluation of Studies on Media

15.2.16 Desensitisation & Disinhibition

15.2.17 Cognitive Priming

15.2.18 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

16 Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1 Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1.1 Defining Crime

16.1.2 Measuring Crime

16.1.3 Offender Profiling

16.1.4 Evaluation of Offender Profiling

16.1.5 John Duffy Case Study

16.1.6 Biological Explanations 1

16.1.7 Biological Explanations 2

16.1.8 Evaluation of the Biological Explanation

16.1.9 Cognitive Explanations

16.1.10 Moral Reasoning

16.1.11 Psychodynamic Explanation 1

16.1.12 Psychodynamic Explanation 2

16.1.13 End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1

16.1.14 Differential Association Theory

16.1.15 Custodial Sentencing

16.1.16 Effects of Prison

16.1.17 Evaluation of the Effects of Prison

16.1.18 Recidivism

16.1.19 Behavioural Treatments & Therapies

16.1.20 Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments

16.1.21 Restorative Justice

16.1.22 End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2

17 Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)

17.1 Addiction (A2 only)

17.1.1 Definition

17.1.2 Brain Neurochemistry Explanation

17.1.3 Learning Theory Explanation

17.1.4 Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation

17.1.5 Cognitive Bias

17.1.6 Griffiths on Cognitive Bias

17.1.7 Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)

17.1.8 End of Topic Test - Addiction 1

17.1.9 Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory

17.1.10 Social Influences on Addiction 1

17.1.11 Social Influences on Addiction 2

17.1.12 Personal Influences on Addiction

17.1.13 Genetic Explanations of Addiction

17.1.14 End of Topic Test - Addiction 2

17.2 Treating Addiction (A2 only)

17.2.1 Drug Therapy

17.2.2 Behavioural Interventions

17.2.3 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

17.2.4 Theory of Reasoned Action

17.2.5 Theory of Planned Behaviour

17.2.6 Six Stage Model of Behaviour Change

17.2.7 End of Topic Test - Treating Addiction

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Experimental Design

Experimental design describes the way participants are allocated to experimental groups. Types of experimental design include repeated measures, independent groups, and matched pairs designs.

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Research Methods - Experimental Method

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Research Methods: MCQ Revision Test 1 for AQA A Level Psychology

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Specifications that use this resource:

• AS and A-level Psychology 7181; 7182

Lesson activity: practical activities for research methods

This resource contains ideas for relevant and engaging practical activities which can be either incorporated into your teaching of the research methods section of the psychology specification, or your students can follow independently.

Activity 1: investigating short term memory

Research suggests that Short Term Memory (STM) cannot hold very much information. You are going to design and carry out an experiment to see whether the capacity of STM differs between two groups: A-level students and older people.

Generate a hypothesis for this study. Justify the direction of your hypothesis. Identify the IV and DV in this experiment.

• gain their consent to take part
• enable them to carry out the task appropriately.
• length of words
• type of words
• number of words
• word presentation.

Participants

Decide upon and justify your choice of participants for the two conditions (the two age groups). Identify and justify your sampling method.

Ethical issues

Before you collect your data, identify and address any relevant ethical issues which may arise from the study you have designed. For example, consider how participants will be debriefed afterwards.

Once you have collected your results, produce a summary table which includes appropriate measures of central tendency. Also generate an appropriate graphical display. Ensure these are appropriately labelled and have a title.

Ask another student to interpret your table and graph for the rest of the class.

Activity 2: investigating handedness

Research suggests that around 10% of the population are left handed or 'sinistral'.

You are going to design a study to compare two types of A-level student. You are aiming to see whether left handedness is more common in some subject groups, such as art students or geographers.

Consider whether you will carry out an observation – eg by counting the number of left handers and right handers from within lessons you attend, or whether you will use a verbal survey of students in the common room.

Describe any materials needed for your chosen method. Remember, if someone wanted to replicate your study they would need to know exactly what you did.

Describe and justify your choice of the A-level subject groups you have chosen for this investigation. Include information about the size of the sample in each condition.

Consider and compare at least two ethical issues associated with each method before deciding which one you will use. How, for example, would you gain consent from students you are observing? How would you gain consent from a verbal survey?

Identify and justify the type of data (level of measurement) you will collect (will it be nominal, ordinal or interval?).

Consider two potential methodological variables associated the use of your chosen method. For example, are demand characteristics likely to be a problem?

Once you have collected your data, summarise it into a correctly labelled pie chart for each of the subject group you measured (eg artists and geographers). Do your findings reflect 10% left handedness in both groups?

In order to practise the skill of reference writing, find three references for studies which have investigated handedness. Include them here in an academically accepted format.

Hint : look at the reference section of an academic text book. What do you notice about their order and format?

Activity 3: investigating gender stereotyping

It has been suggested by some researchers that males and females are often gender stereotyped by others when it comes to their expected and/or perceived roles and behaviours. Your task is to investigate whether gender stereotyping occurs in product marketing aimed at children.

• examine online promotional material
• look at television advertisements
• examine children's comics.

Generate a suitable aim and hypothesis for your study. Justify your choice of a directional or non-directional hypothesis.

Decide upon a specific age range for the children targeted by your chosen media source.

In pairs, decide upon an appropriate working definition of stereotyping for your study. In other words, clearly 'operationalise' the concept you will measure.

You might decide to measure:

• the number of times that boys or girls interact with particular toys
• how often certain colours are used to promote toys for girls and boys
• the type of words used to promote toys for girls and boys
• the actions associated with certain toys (physical or passive).

Well operationalised definitions make it much easier to identify your IV and DV.

Once you have collected your data, summarise it into a correctly labelled graph and present your findings to the rest of the class in a five minute presentation.

Ask your peers for questions about your investigation and answer one or two of these.

Discussions

Research findings are an important tool for informing social change.

In two or three paragraphs, discuss the possible social and/or developmental implications of your findings.

Activity 4: investigating aggression

Researchers have come up with theories to try and explain why people become aggressive. One explanation is to do with 'nurture'. That is, we learn to be aggressive from environmental influences such as computer games.

Your aim is to compare the perceived level of aggression in games designed for two different age groups: those under 12 and those over 18 years of age.

In a small group, generate the names of six computer games intended for play by individuals over the age of 18 and six games which are intended for children under 12. Randomly select three games from the 'over 18' list and three from the 'under 12' list. Produce a random list of these six games.

How and why would random selection be used to produce the list?

Selection of game raters

Select an equal number of male and female students aged eighteen or over. Their job will be to rate the games for levels of aggression. Explain and justify your choice of game raters. For example, why would you need a balance of males and female raters?

Ask the raters to give each game on the list a rating for aggression from 1 to 10 (where 1 = no aggression and 10 = high levels of aggression).

Calculate an appropriate measure of central tendency for each 'over 18s' game and each 'under 12s' game.

Carry out an 'eyeball test' to see which set of games appears to have the highest levels of aggression. The ones designed for under 12s or over 18s?

Which statistical test would you use if you wanted to see whether there were significantly different levels of aggression in games for older and younger people? Justify your choice of test.

In a paragraph or two, explain the methodological and ethical issues arising when asking people to rate levels of aggression in computer games.

Explain the possible implication of your findings relative to theories of aggression.

Activity 5: investigating age and sleep patterns

Research has shown that the human body clock is very important in determining sleep and wake patterns. Your task will be to design a study to investigate the relationship between age and sleep duration.

Generate an appropriate directional hypothesis for this correlational study.

Design a response sheet for people to complete in order to record the amount of time they sleep over a number of nights. You will need to consider how many nights, which days of the week and how they are to record their sleep (eg minutes/hours/clock times). Justify your choices.

What other information will you need on this sheet to enable you carry out the study? For example, how will you record the age of your participants?

In terms of sampling, who will be your target population and what type of sampling will you use? Justify your choices. Decide upon and operationalise the age groups you hope to measure. You should aim to include a wide age range and therefore address the ethical requirements associated with these, particularly with regard to any participants under 16 years of age.

Once you have collected your data, produce a suitable scattergraph to show the relationship between age and sleep duration.

Do the results appear to support your predictions? Justify your answer.

Which statistical test would you use to look for a significant relationship between age and sleep duration? Why would you choose to use this test?

In two or three paragraphs, and as part of the 'Discussion' section of a psychological investigation, briefly consider the possible methodological implications of your findings, particularly with regard to confounding variables within the study.

In order to practise the skill of reference writing, find three references for studies which have investigated sleep. Include them here in an academically accepted format.

Activity 6: investigating cognitive psychology

The Cognitive Approach in psychology places a great deal of importance on the influence of higher thought processes on decision making and behaviour.

Your task is to design and carry out a study to investigate the possible influence of expectation and perceptual bias on decision making processes.

Participants will simply be asked to rate the suitability of someone who has applied for a particular (named) job. Think carefully what this could be.

You should produce a short and credible education/career summary for a fictitious individual. This could include a list of their GCSE results, A-levels, degree details and work experience. You may decide not to include all of these depending on the job vacancy you have chosen to use.

People often have preconceptions regarding ability and a person’s age or gender, so look at one of these factors. If you choose age, then produce two identical versions of the CV differing only in terms of the persons specific age. The applicant's name could be an extraneous variable in this study. How will you control this EV?

Identify and justify an appropriate participant sample and sampling method.

Half of the participants should see the 'young' CV version, and be asked to rate the suitability of the person for the vacancy. You will need to devise a suitable rating scale for this and a clear set of instructions for participants to follow.

The remaining participants will rate the 'older' candidate.

Identify, explain and justify the experimental design used in your study. Is it repeated measures, independent groups or matched pairs? Would it have been possible to use a different design to the one you have used? Explain your answer.

Summarise your findings using descriptive statistics, perhaps a table and a graph.

In two or three paragraphs, explain the implications of your findings with regard to any age bias you may or may not have found.

Activity 7: investigating stress

People often report feeling high levels of stress at certain points in their lives. Students, for example, often feel stressed in the run up to examinations.

Your task is to devise a self-report measure to try and find the possible reasons for examination stress in AS/A Level students or GCSE students.

You should devise a questionnaire asking students to list and briefly describe possible reasons for examination stress in students.

You should emphasise in your brief that their answers may not necessarily be a reflection of their own stressors and that their answers will be confidential and anonymous. Write a set of ethically sound procedures to explain how this will be achieved.

Decide upon a sample of students. Informed consent must be addressed. If you decide to sample GCSE students, for example, you must first (and also) gain consent from parents or those in loco parentis. Explain why and how this will be done and evidenced.

Identify and justify whether the students responses will generate qualitative or quantitative data. Identify one strength and one weakness of the data type you have collected in this investigation.

From the answers given, think about how you could summarise these to generate a suitable graph. This could include identifying types or categories of stressor. You could then calculate the percentage of students who identified these as potential stressors.

Ask another student (who was not involved with your investigation) to interpret and describe the results using your graph. This will tell you whether your graph is a clear summary of your results.

Write two or three paragraphs to consider the implications of your findings. This might, for example, be ways of helping to reduce examination stress.

Activity 8: investigating social development

It has often been suggested that small animals, including humans, are born with certain physical features (such as large eyes) that encourage others to take care of them.

You will design a study to see whether babies look cuter when their eyes are open compared to when their eyes are closed.

You will need two photographs – one of you as a baby/toddler with your eyes wide open and one of you at a similar age with your eyes closed. If you are creative, you could use the same photograph manipulated in a photographic software programme.

Only the face should be visible. Explain the methodological reasons for using the same photograph and two other controls you consider relevant to this investigation.

These might, for example, include a justification of the size of the photograph or whether it is in colour or black and white.

Explain the ethical reasons for using photos of yourself in this study.

You will then ask people to rate the cuteness of the 'two' babies using an independent groups (unrelated) design. How will you allocate people to the 'open eyes' and 'closed eyes' conditions? Justify your answer.

Devise a suitable 'cuteness' rating scale for this study. Justify how long you will give participants to rate the photograph. Explain why participants will not be given unlimited time to give their ratings. Generate an appropriate set of instructions, a brief and debrief for use in this study.

Produce an appropriate graph from the data collected. Which statistical test would be appropriate for analysing this data? Justify your choice. Explain whether the test you have chosen is parametric or non-parametric.

Produce an abstract (summary) which could be used when writing up this study. Try to keep this to a maximum of 200 words, but include reference to: the aim of the study, theory behind the study, how it was tested, participants, summary of findings and a conclusion.

Activity 9: investigating food preference

Many theories have been offered to explain food preference in humans; some of which are biological, others due to environmental influence. For example, it is said that more people are now choosing to eat vegetarian diets than ever before.

You will carry out a study to record:

• Whether more males or females are vegetarians
• How long the males and female participants have been vegetarian (in an attempt to identify which gender has been a vegetarian the longest)

Participants in this study should be over 16 years of age. Explain why.

Design your study to gain participants using volunteer sampling. How will you achieve this? Outline the main methodological problems arising from using a volunteer sampling method for this investigation. Outline and justify a better way of sampling in this study which could contribute to more valid results.

Decide whether this will take the form of written responses to a simple questionnaire or a verbal survey of participants. Design and justify your materials accordingly.

Whichever method you choose, you should plan and produce an appropriate set of procedures for your investigation. This way, you will know exactly what you intend to do and/or say to participants and what they have to do/say during the investigation.

A 'Procedures' section, when written up, would normally be:

• written in the past tense
• include all steps and 'verbatim' instructions (find out what does this means)
• written in the third person.

So although you must plan this ahead prospectively, you must write this up afterwards retrospectively. Try doing this by writing up your 'Procedure' in this way.

Identify and justify the type of data you will collect in each part of the study.

Produce a summary of your findings using appropriate descriptive statistics.

Include a written conclusion of your findings.

Eating behaviour can be a sensitive topic for some people. Perhaps their diet is governed by illness or other personal factors. Outline at least two ways in which you will ensure that your participants are not placed in a position of psychological discomfort by taking part in your study.

Activity 10: investigating food preference

When psychologists design studies, they have to consider the validity of their research. That is, are they really measuring what they set out to measure?

You will be considering issues of validity in this exercise when you attempt to design the materials for a study intending to measure social influence. Obedience is one form of social influence; conformity is another.

In small groups, collect and agree upon ten celebrity faces for use in this investigation. What will you need to consider when choosing the faces for this study? Perhaps how well known the person is or their gender.

Explain how these and other factors might impact upon the validity of your study.

You will need to duplicate these photographs. One set of the faces will remain 'whole', whilst the other set should only show the eyes of the same celebrities.

One way of testing validity is through 'face validity'. In this case, the researchers would be asking whether the measure looks, at face value, as though it measures obedience.

The class should therefore look at all of the questions generated and explain whether the questions designed to test obedience actually look as though they do this.

What if one of the questions reads 'Your neighbour asks you to move her dustbin? Do you?' or 'All of your friends make a noise in the library, do you join in?'

Are these valid measures of obedience or something else? Justify your answer.

If such questions were to be used in a study, how would the participant's responses be recorded? Would it be through yes/no answers or some other measure? Describe and justify way of measuring obedience other than through yes/no responses.

Identify and explain at least two potential methodological issues which might arise in such a study of obedience.

Identify and explain at least two ethical issues which might arise. One of these should relate to confidentiality.

As an alternative task, you could start to look around your school, supermarkets etc for posters/signs which encourage obedience. Categorise the techniques used, eg obedience through fear, and consider which technique is more likely to cause obedience in the real world.

Activity 11: investigating holism v reductionism

One of many important debates in psychology is that of Holism versus Reductionism. In Cognitive Psychology, for example, this can be seen in theories of face recognition. The holistic view would argue that we need to see a whole face in order to identify it. The reductionist view argues that single features alone are sufficient.

You will carry out an investigation to test holism and reductionism in face recognition.

Design/participants

Using an independent groups (unrelated) design, randomly allocate 10 people to Condition 1 (whole face) and 10 people to Condition 2 (eyes only). Explain why the independent groups design would be used. Could you use a different design in this study?

The participants simply have to name the celebrity. You will time them using a stopwatch to see how long it takes to name all ten celebrities in each condition (whole or eyes). Devise a suitable system for accurately recording total reaction time.

Carry out a pilot study with two or three people prior to the main study in order to test and improve the procedure and/or materials. You may, for example, have to consider what you will do if the participant answers incorrectly, or takes a long time to answer.

Produce a summary table and graph to summarise the findings from your study. Which side of the debate seems to be supported? Explain your answer.

Name and justify an appropriate parametric test which could be used to analyse your data. Name and justify the use of an alternative non-parametric test.

Activity 12: investigating honesty

Some researchers believe that when we are being truthful, our eyes look to the left, but it we are not being honest, we gaze to the right and that this process is reversed for left handed people. Other researchers are not so sure.

Your task is to design two ways in which this could be tested.

Design an observational study which could be carried out in a sixth form setting using stratified sampling.

You will need to describe:

• how the researcher could consistently determine gaze direction
• the questions asked in order to elicit truthful and non-truthful answers
• the type of observation undertaken and why
• the ethical issues associated with a study of this nature
• how the stratified sample would be achieved.

Design a second experiment in which eye gaze direction could be measured through the use of more physiological means such as an EOG (look online for this).

• the ethical issues associated with a study of this nature and how they differ from the observation study described above
• an appropriate brief and debrief and how these might differ from those given in the observation study described above
• the type of experiment undertaken and why. For example, would this be a lab experiment or a field experiment, and why?

In order to practise the skill of reference writing, find three references for studies which have investigated this topic. Include them here in an academically accepted format.

Activity 13: investigating reliability

When psychologists design studies, they have to consider the reliability (consistency) of their findings. That is, if someone else were to carry out the same study, would they get the same or very similar results?

The Psychology teacher should select a 4 or 6 mark memory question from a past Psychology examination paper. Students will be answering and then double marking this. The mark scheme should be kept confidential at this point.

Students should then consider and devise a system whereby they are each randomly allocated an identification number. This will replace their names on their answer to the question they are about to answer. Justify this in terms of appropriate ethical and/or methodological issues.

In silence, students should then write their answer to the question set. An appropriate time limit should be set for this task. Students should consider what this should be and base their decision on the amount of time you would normally expect to allocate to 4 (or 6) mark question.

The answer papers should then be randomly allocated to other members of the class for marking according to the mark scheme.

This process should be done twice. This will allow you to consider inter-marker reliability regarding the marking of the students answers.

As a possible control of potential EVs, explain why it is important to ensure that the second marker does not know or see the mark awarded by the first marker. Describe how this could be achieved.

The two marks awarded to each anonymous student should then be examined. What would you expect to find if the marking is reliable? Briefly outline the results and what these mean in terms of inter-marker reliability.

Explain how inter-marker reliability could be checked statistically.

Produce an appropriate graphical display of the findings.

As a potential discussion/improvement point, briefly explain why the answers might have been better word processed than hand written.

Document URL https://www.aqa.org.uk/resources/psychology/as-and-a-level/psychology/teach/practical-activities-for-research-methods

Last updated 07 Sep 2020

Observational Techniques ( AQA A Level Psychology )

Revision note.

Psychology Content Creator

Observational Techniques

• Observations are a non-experimental technique
• Observations may still use manipulation (controlled observations do this e.g. Bandura, 1961)
• Observers can only investigate  observable   behaviours i.e. what they can see (e.g. a child hits a Bobo doll with a mallet)
• Observers cannot  infer motive or intention or feeling or thought from an observation (e.g. a child ignores the Bobo doll because they are not interested in it)

Covert Observation 

• Participants are observed without their knowledge
• The researcher may be physically present, but, the participants do not know or realise they are being observed  
• The researcher is observing natural, unmanipulated behaviour 

Evaluation Points 

Overt Observation 

• Participants are aware that they are being observed 
• Participants may be able to see the researcher observing them 
• Participants are aware their behaviour is being observed and recorded for an observational study 

Participant Observation 

• The researcher joins the group being observed and becomes involved with them 
• The group being observed may not realise that the observer is not really 'one of them'

Non - participant Observation 

• The researcher remains separate from the participants 
• The researcher observes and records the participants without taking part in activities or conversations 

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Author: Claire Neeson

Claire has been teaching for 34 years, in the UK and overseas. She has taught GCSE, A-level and IB Psychology which has been a lot of fun and extremely exhausting! Claire is now a freelance Psychology teacher and content creator, producing textbooks, revision notes and (hopefully) exciting and interactive teaching materials for use in the classroom and for exam prep. Her passion (apart from Psychology of course) is roller skating and when she is not working (or watching 'Coronation Street') she can be found busting some impressive moves on her local roller rink.

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EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN - AQA Psychology research methods FULL LESSON

Subject: Psychology

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Other

Last updated

11 November 2022

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This includes a powerpoint detailing notes for experimental designs. I usually only get them to take notes on the description of each design and then they do the card sort to get the evaluation for each.

I use the experiment resources to demonstrate the differences in the designs and also to get them thinking about the strengths and weaknesses. Words vs Pictures for repeated measures and then the long and short words memory test for independent groups (instructions on ppt and in notes under ppt slides).

2 sets of exam questions included - one can be for the lesson and one for homework. These assume some prior lessons have been completed on variables, pilot studies and types of experiments.

Also uploaded my types of experiments lesson

Tes paid licence How can I reuse this?

Get this resource as part of a bundle and save up to 11%

A bundle is a package of resources grouped together to teach a particular topic, or a series of lessons, in one place.

Research Methods Year 1 lessons - AQA Psychology

This bundle includes all of the 9 lessons I have uploaded for AS AQA Psychology research methods and Revision resources too. It includes powerpoints for all and then worksheets and some exam questions. Includes: Variables Experiments Experimental Design Correlations Observations Aims and Hypotheses Sampling Methods Data and Maths Significance and Sign Test There is a second year revision and new lessons bundle too: https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/aqa-psychology-research-methods-year-2-full-lessons-and-revision-resources-11780438

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nesrine6789

hi can you please give some guidance on how you got the class to do the pictures and words experiment. instructions would be helpful please.

Hi there are instructions on the ppt and in the notes underneath the slides on the ppt.<br /> For Repeated measures they are given the pictures to look at and learn then have to recall them, then the same students given the words to memorise and then recall. For independent groups the class is split into two halves and one half get long words to memorise and other class get short words to memorise and recall.

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