philosophy extended essay ideas

Philosophy Extended Essay Topics and RQs for IB Students

Table of contents

• Writing Metier

Greetings, budding philosophers! I, the co-founder of Writing Metier , extend a warm welcome to this curated selection of IB Philosophy Extended Essay topics designed to ignite your intellectual fire and engage your critical thinking. My team of IB writers has spent several days selecting some interesting options for you.

At its core, philosophy encourages us to grapple with the fundamental questions of our existence, encompassing everything from ethics to the very fabric of reality. 

Our mission? To inspire you! To walk you through the Odyssey, where you’ll crack the intricacy of human thought and contribute your own voice to the ongoing discourse of philosophy. 

If you’re captivated by the pressing ethical issues of our modern world, intrigued by the labyrinthine pathways of knowledge, or captivated by the existential mysteries of metaphysics, this guide is meticulously crafted to fuel your imagination. 

IB Philosophy EE Topic Ideas

Every topic invites us to engage with philosophical thought, interacting with the profound ideas that have shaped our understanding of the world.

Here are three unique and manageable topics with corresponding research questions for each subcategory in IB Philosophy, designed to meet the IB Extended Essay criteria:

Fellow thinkers and seekers, welcome to the world of Ethics , where we grapple with questions of right and wrong, good and evil. It’s a realm where we examine the principles that guide our actions and shape our moral landscape.

Moral Relativism vs. Moral Absolutism

• Research Question: How does cultural diversity support or challenge the principles of moral relativism?
• Research Question: Can moral absolutism provide a universal foundation for human rights?
• Research Question: Can ethical pluralism reconcile the differences between moral relativism and moral absolutism?

Utilitarianism and Its Critiques

• Research Question: How does the trolley problem challenge the principles of utilitarianism?
• Research Question: How can utilitarianism address ethical dilemmas in environmental conservation?
• Research Question: How does the concept of happiness in utilitarianism compare with contemporary understandings of well-being?

Virtue Ethics

• Research Question: How can virtue ethics be applied to ethical decision-making in modern business practices?
• Research Question: How does Aristotle’s concept of virtue ethics contribute to personal development and flourishing?
• Research Question: How can virtue ethics guide ethical behavior in the context of social media and digital communication?

As we move from the moral complexities of Ethics, we venture into the realm of Epistemology, where we explore the foundations of knowledge and truth.

Epistemology

In Epistemology, we dive into the quest for understanding how we know what we know . Let’s travel through theories of truth, skepticism, and the justification of beliefs.

Theories of Truth

• Research Question: How does the pragmatic theory of truth apply to the analysis of truth in political discourse?
• Research Question: How does the correspondence theory of truth support the claims of scientific realism?
• Research Question: How does the coherence theory of truth impact legal reasoning and the establishment of facts in court?

Skepticism and Knowledge

• Research Question: How does Descartes’ method of skepticism contribute to the philosophical quest for certainty?
• Research Question: How do skeptical arguments challenge our knowledge of the external world?
• Research Question: How do contemporary epistemologists respond to traditional skeptical challenges regarding knowledge?

Justification of Beliefs

• Research Question: How do foundationalism and coherentism differ in their approaches to justifying beliefs?
• Research Question: How does perception serve as a basis for justifying empirical beliefs?
• Research Question: How does the Gettier problem challenge the traditional concept of knowledge as justified true belief?

Leaving the realm of knowledge, we now enter the world of Metaphysics, where we confront the fundamental questions of existence and reality.

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Metaphysics

No, it’s not physics ; it’s metaphysics, and it invites us to ponder the nature of reality, the mysteries of identity, and the debates surrounding free will and determinism. It’s a domain where we explore the very essence of being.

Free Will and Determinism

• Research Question: How does compatibilism attempt to reconcile the concepts of free will and determinism?
• Research Question: How does libertarianism defend the existence of free will against determinist arguments?
• Research Question: How do interpretations of quantum mechanics challenge traditional views of determinism?

Identity and Personal Identity

• Research Question: How does the Ship of Theseus paradox shed light on the concept of identity over time?
• Research Question: How does John Locke’s memory criterion contribute to the understanding of personal identity?
• Research Question: How do recent neuroscientific discoveries challenge or support existing theories of personal identity?

The Nature of Reality

• Research Question: How does Platonic realism defend the existence of abstract objects and their role in the nature of reality?
• Research Question: How does the simulation hypothesis challenge our perceptions of reality and our understanding of existence?
• Research Question: How does the concept of the multiverse influence metaphysical debates on the nature of reality?

From the abstract questions of Metaphysics, we shift our focus to the Philosophy of Mind, where we examine the nature of consciousness and the intricacies of mental phenomena.

Philosophy of Mind

In the Philosophy of Mind, we delve into the complexities of consciousness, the mind-body problem, and the implications of artificial intelligence. It’s a realm where we seek to understand the workings of our own minds.

Consciousness and the Mind-Body Problem

• Research Question: How do dualism and physicalism provide different solutions to the mind-body problem?
• Research Question: How does the hard problem of consciousness challenge our understanding of the nature of subjective experience?
• Research Question: How does panpsychism offer a unique perspective on the relationship between consciousness and the physical world?

Artificial Intelligence and Personhood

• Research Question: How does the Turing Test contribute to the debate on machine intelligence and its implications for personhood?
• Research Question: Can artificial intelligence systems be considered moral agents, and what are the ethical implications?
• Research Question: What are the philosophical challenges in attributing consciousness to artificial intelligence systems?

Perception and Reality

• Research Question: How do direct realism and representationalism differ in their accounts of the relationship between perception and reality?
• Research Question: To what extent does perception construct our reality, and what are the philosophical implications?
• Research Question: What do illusions and perceptual errors reveal about the nature of perception and its impact on our understanding of reality?

From the inner workings of the mind, we move to the broader sphere of Political Philosophy, where we explore the principles that govern societies and the concepts of justice and liberty.

Political Philosophy

Political Philosophy takes us through the ideas of justice, equality, and the balance between liberty and authority. It’s a field where we examine the foundations of political systems and the nature of societal organization.

Justice and Equality

• Research Question: How does John Rawls’ theory of justice apply to contemporary issues of inequality and social justice?
• Research Question: How does libertarianism approach the concept of distributive justice, and what are its implications for social inequality?
• Research Question: How do feminist perspectives challenge and enrich traditional philosophical conceptions of justice and equality?

Liberty and Authority

• Research Question: How does John Stuart Mill’s harm principle define the limits of individual liberty in relation to state authority?
• Research Question: How can societies balance the protection of civil liberties with the need for national security?
• Research Question: What are the criteria for legitimate authority in democratic societies, and how is it maintained?

Social Contract Theory

• Research Question: How does Hobbes’ concept of the social contract in “Leviathan” justify the establishment of an absolute sovereign?
• Research Question: How does Rousseau’s concept of the general will in “The Social Contract” reconcile individual freedom with collective governance?
• Research Question: How do feminist critiques challenge the assumptions and implications of traditional social contract theory?

Leaving the realm of politics, we venture into the Philosophy of Science, where we scrutinize the nature of scientific inquiry and the principles that underpin our understanding of the natural world.

Philosophy of Science

In the Philosophy of Science, we explore the debates between scientific realism and anti-realism, the challenges of induction, and the nature of scientific explanations.

It’s a fascinating intersection of philosophy and the empirical world.

Scientific Realism vs. Anti-Realism

• Research Question: How do scientific realism and instrumentalism differ in their interpretations of the success of scientific theories?
• Research Question: How does the role of observation in scientific inquiry support or challenge the claims of scientific realism?
• Research Question: How does the underdetermination of theory by evidence support anti-realist positions in the philosophy of science?

The Problem of Induction

• Research Question: How does Hume’s problem of induction challenge the reliability of inductive reasoning in scientific methodology?
• Research Question: How does Karl Popper’s falsificationism address the problem of induction in the philosophy of science?
• Research Question: How does Bayesianism offer a solution to the problem of induction through probabilistic reasoning?

The Nature of Scientific Explanations

• Research Question: How does the deductive-nomological model account for the nature of scientific explanations?
• Research Question: How is causality essential to understanding scientific explanations, and what challenges does it pose?
• Research Question: How do scientific explanations differ in historical sciences, such as evolutionary biology and geology, compared to experimental sciences?

From the empirical rigor of science, we transition to the subjective realm of Aesthetics, where we contemplate the nature of beauty and the role of art in human experience.

Aesthetics invites us to reflect on the concepts of beauty, the interpretation of art , and the relationship between art and morality. It’s a domain where we appreciate the aesthetic dimensions of life and the power of artistic expression.

Beauty and Aesthetic Judgment

• Research Question: How does Immanuel Kant’s theory of aesthetic judgment and the concept of disinterestedness contribute to our understanding of beauty?
• Research Question: To what extent is aesthetic judgment subjective, and how does this impact the universality of beauty?
• Research Question: How has the digital age, with its proliferation of images and art forms, influenced contemporary notions of aesthetic judgment and beauty?

Art and Morality

• Research Question: What are the ethical responsibilities of artists when representing sensitive or controversial subjects in their work?
• Research Question: How does an artist’s intent influence the moral interpretation of their artwork, and should it?
• Research Question: How do societies balance the need for artistic freedom of expression with the enforcement of moral values, and what are the implications for censorship in art?

The Role of Intention in Art

• Research Question: Is it possible or desirable to evaluate art independently of the artist’s intention, as argued by the intentional fallacy?
• Research Question: How does the concept of authorial intent impact the interpretation of literary works, and what are the challenges it presents?
• Research Question: How does the role of intent differ in conceptual art compared to traditional art forms, and what does this reveal about the nature of artistic meaning?

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All these topics and research questions aim to inspire IB Philosophy students to engage in deep and critical thinking , exploring the multifaceted nature of philosophical inquiry and contributing to ongoing debates in the discipline . 

Each field offers a unique lens through which to view the world, challenging us to think deeply and critically about the human experience.

Whether interested in the ethical dimensions of human behavior, the foundational questions of knowledge and reality, or the aesthetic considerations of art and beauty, these topics provide a solid foundation for an insightful and thought-provoking Extended Essay in Philosophy.

As we conclude this exploration of IB Philosophy extended essay topics, I trust you feel empowered and ready to undertake your own philosophical quest. Remember, philosophy is not merely a pursuit of answers; it’s about cultivating the skill of asking the right questions. 

At Writing Metier, we have a fantastic team of philosophy essay writers , and we stand firmly behind your growth as you walk the intricate pathways of research and writing. Our team of experts stands ready to offer unwavering guidance, constructive feedback, and unwavering IB essay help at every step of the way, even if you are running out of time and have only several days to do it.

With Writing Metier at your side, your exploration into the captivating world of philosophy transcends academic pursuit; it’s an opportunity to engage with the world in a meaningful and insightful way. 

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Vasyl Kafidoff is a co-founder and CEO at WritingMetier. He is interested in education and how modern technology makes it more accessible. He wants to bring awareness about new learning possibilities as an educational specialist. When Vasy is not working, he’s found behind a drum kit.

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Philosophy Extended Essay Topics for IB

Taking on the Extended Essay is a significant academic undertaking. As an IB tutor and writer, I understand the unique challenges and rewards it presents. With its breadth and depth, the Philosophy course offers a particularly fascinating field for research. In this post, I will discuss topics to consider for the Philosophy Extended Essay.

Popular Themes for Your Philosophy Extended Essay

Before we begin, let’s look at some common themes many students have used and successfully written their Extended Essays. By the way, with our skilled writers, you can order an Extended Essay explicitly written for you and achieve a great score without effort.

Ethics and Morality

Consider topics such as the ethical implications of artificial intelligence. It could involve investigating whether AI can make moral decisions or if morality is uniquely human. Another engaging topic is moral relativism in global conflicts, which examines whether moral standards can be universally applied or are culturally dependent.

Philosophy of Mind

From my experience, topics in the philosophy of mind, like the mind-body problem, attract considerable interest. You might research the distinction between the mind and the body and whether this distinction is a cultural construct or a concrete reality.

Political Philosophy

Political philosophy also offers a fertile ground for research. You could write about the principles underlying political liberalism or analyze the concept of justice in modern societies. These topics align with the core themes of IB Philosophy and encourage a critical evaluation of contemporary issues.

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Philosophy Extended Essay Topics and Research Questions

Choosing a topic that interests you is crucial. A topic that resonates with you will keep you motivated through the long process of researching and writing. Among the Philosophy Extended Essay Topics I give you below, you are sure to find the perfect one:

• The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence . Can artificial intelligence ever achieve moral agency, and what implications does this have for human responsibility?
• Free Will and Determinism . To what extent does the concept of determinism challenge the traditional understanding of free will in human actions?
• Philosophy of Mind: Consciousness . How can contemporary philosophical theories explain the phenomenon of consciousness concerning the physical brain?
• Existentialism and Authenticity . How do existentialist philosophers define the concept of authenticity, and why is it essential for individual freedom?
• Moral Relativism vs. Moral Absolutism . Is moral relativism a more plausible ethical theory than moral absolutism in today’s globalized world?
• Philosophical Implications of Quantum Mechanics . How do the principles of quantum mechanics challenge traditional philosophical notions of reality and determinism?
• Utilitarianism in Public Policy . How effective is utilitarianism as a guiding principle for public policy decisions in modern democracies?
• Philosophy of Language: Meaning and Interpretation . What role does context play in the interpretation of meaning in language, according to Ludwig Wittgenstein?
• Feminist Philosophy: The Ethics of Care . How does the ethics of care challenge traditional ethical theories in addressing justice and equality?
• The Philosophy of Education: Knowledge vs. Understanding . What should be the primary goal of education — imparting knowledge or fostering understanding — and why?
• Environmental Ethics and Human Responsibility . What moral obligations do humans have towards the environment, and how can these be philosophically justified?
• Social Contract Theories and Modern Society . How relevant are Rousseau’s and Hobbes’ social contract theories in explaining the foundation of modern political authority?
• The Concept of Justice in Plato’s Republic . How does Plato’s concept of justice in ‘The Republic’ relate to modern ideas of fairness and equality?
• Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Power . How does Friedrich Nietzsche’s “will to power” philosophy provide insight into contemporary social and political issues?
• The Problem of Evil in Theodicy . How do different philosophical traditions address the problem of evil, and can it be reconciled with the existence of an all-powerful, benevolent deity?
• The Ethics of Euthanasia . Under what conditions, if any, can euthanasia be morally justified from a utilitarian perspective?
• Philosophy of Science: Paradigm Shifts . How do Thomas Kuhn’s ideas about paradigm shifts challenge the objective nature of scientific knowledge?
• Existence and Concept of God . Can the existence of God be proved or disproved using Anselm’s ontological argument?
• Philosophy and Literature: Camus’s Absurdism . How does Albert Camus’ concept of the absurd in literature provide a philosophical critique of existential nihilism?
• Philosophical Skepticism and Knowledge . Is absolute certainty necessary for knowledge, according to philosophical skeptics?
• Virtue Ethics and Modern Morality . How does Aristotle’s theory of virtue ethics apply to contemporary moral dilemmas, such as corporate ethics?
• Philosophy of Art: Aesthetics and Experience . According to Immanuel Kant, what role does aesthetic experience play in art appreciation?
• Justice and Social Equity . How does John Rawls’ theory of justice as fairness apply to contemporary debates about economic inequality?
• Philosophy of Religion: Faith vs. Reason . Can faith in a religious context ever be reconciled with the demands of rational justification?
• Marxism and Class Conflict . How relevant are Karl Marx’s theories of class conflict and societal change in understanding modern capitalist societies?
• Bioethics and Genetic Engineering . What ethical principles should govern the use of genetic engineering technologies in humans?
• Philosophy of Technology and Human Values . How does technology influence human values, and what philosophical issues does this raise about autonomy and freedom?
• Eastern Philosophy: Concepts of Self in Buddhism . How does the Buddhist concept of ‘no-self’ challenge Western notions of identity and selfhood?
• Political Philosophy: The Right to Privacy . What philosophical arguments support the right to privacy in the digital age?
• Phenomenology and Perception . How does Husserl’s phenomenology enhance our understanding of the relationship between perception and reality?
• Ethical Implications of Human Cloning . What are the philosophical arguments for and against the ethical permissibility of human cloning?
• Philosophy of Time: Presentism vs. Eternalism . How do presentism and eternalism differ in their conceptualization of time, and what implications do these differences have for our understanding of reality?
• Animal Rights and Ethical Vegetarianism . Can the moral arguments for vegetarianism and animal rights be justified through Kantian ethics?
• Philosophy of Happiness: Utilitarianism vs. Hedonism . How do utilitarian and hedonist views on happiness differ, and which provides a more sustainable model for societal well-being?
• Simone de Beauvoir and Feminism . How does Simone de Beauvoir’s concept of the “Other” contribute to contemporary feminist thought and the fight for gender equality?
• The Philosophy of Language: Truth and Meaning . According to contemporary philosophers like Donald Davidson, what is the relationship between language, truth, and meaning?
• Ethics of War and Peace . How can just war theory be applied to evaluate the morality of modern warfare practices?
• Philosophy of Education: Critical Thinking . What is the role of critical thinking in education, and how should it be fostered according to classical and contemporary philosophers?
• Stoicism and Modern Life . How relevant are Stoic philosophies in helping individuals deal with modern life stresses and decision-making?
• Cognitive Liberty and Neuroethics . What are the philosophical implications of cognitive liberty in the context of emerging neurotechnologies?
• Philosophical Analysis of Utopian and Dystopian Literature . How do utopian and dystopian works of literature reflect philosophical ideas about society and human nature?
• Existential Risks and Global Priorities . What philosophical principles should guide humanity’s approach to existential risks, such as artificial intelligence or climate change?
• The Ethics of Care: A Feminist Critique . How does the ethics of care provide a feminist critique of traditional ethical theories like utilitarianism and deontology?
• Postmodernism and Truth . How does postmodern philosophy challenge traditional concepts of truth and knowledge?
• Philosophy and Disability . What do philosophical theories suggest about the ethical treatment and societal integration of individuals with disabilities?
• The Moral Implications of Poverty and Wealth . From a philosophical standpoint, what are the moral obligations of wealthy societies towards impoverished ones?
• Philosophy of Law: Natural Law vs. Legal Positivism . How do natural law and legal positivism differ in their approaches to understanding the nature and purpose of law?
• The Ethics of Space Research . What ethical considerations should govern the expansion of human activity into space, particularly concerning planetary protection and exploitation?
• Philosophical Underpinnings of Capitalism and Socialism . What philosophical arguments support capitalism and socialism, and how do they address human welfare?
• Mindfulness and Philosophy . How does mindfulness practice intersect with philosophical concepts of consciousness and self-awareness?
• The Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence: Personhood and Rights . Should advanced artificial intelligence be considered a person, and what rights would they be entitled to?
• Existentialism and Freedom . How do existentialist philosophers conceptualize freedom, and what implications does this have for personal responsibility?
• Neurophilosophy and the Self . How does neurophilosophy challenge traditional philosophical views about the self and personal identity?
• Philosophical Perspectives on Environmental Conservation . What are the philosophical bases for environmental conservation, and how do they address the challenge of sustainable development?
• Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Beauty . What role does beauty play in human experience, according to philosophers like Kant and Hume, and how does this influence contemporary aesthetic judgments?

According to general IB criteria, a topic too broad can be as challenging as one too narrow. Therefore, preliminary research to gauge the scope of available academic material is a step you must take.

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The Philosophy Extended Essay gives an excellent chance for IB students to focus on a topic of great interest to them. In my experience, the path to success is mindful topic selection, extensive research, and a clear, logical structure of your essay. Remember to request feedback from your supervisor and maintain a critical eye on your work. Also, our IB experts are always here and ready to help with EE writing on any subject.

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The Complete IB Extended Essay Guide: Examples, Topics, and Ideas

International Baccalaureate (IB)

IB students around the globe fear writing the Extended Essay, but it doesn't have to be a source of stress! In this article, I'll get you excited about writing your Extended Essay and provide you with the resources you need to get an A on it.

If you're reading this article, I'm going to assume you're an IB student getting ready to write your Extended Essay. If you're looking at this as a potential future IB student, I recommend reading our introductory IB articles first, including our guide to what the IB program is and our full coverage of the IB curriculum .

IB Extended Essay: Why Should You Trust My Advice?

I myself am a recipient of an IB Diploma, and I happened to receive an A on my IB Extended Essay. Don't believe me? The proof is in the IBO pudding:

If you're confused by what this report means, EE is short for Extended Essay , and English A1 is the subject that my Extended Essay topic coordinated with. In layman's terms, my IB Diploma was graded in May 2010, I wrote my Extended Essay in the English A1 category, and I received an A grade on it.

What Is the Extended Essay in the IB Diploma Programme?

The IB Extended Essay, or EE , is a mini-thesis you write under the supervision of an IB advisor (an IB teacher at your school), which counts toward your IB Diploma (learn more about the major IB Diploma requirements in our guide) . I will explain exactly how the EE affects your Diploma later in this article.

For the Extended Essay, you will choose a research question as a topic, conduct the research independently, then write an essay on your findings . The essay itself is a long one—although there's a cap of 4,000 words, most successful essays get very close to this limit.

Keep in mind that the IB requires this essay to be a "formal piece of academic writing," meaning you'll have to do outside research and cite additional sources.

The IB Extended Essay must include the following:

• A title page
• Contents page
• Introduction
• Body of the essay
• References and bibliography

Additionally, your research topic must fall into one of the six approved DP categories , or IB subject groups, which are as follows:

• Group 1: Studies in Language and Literature
• Group 2: Language Acquisition
• Group 3: Individuals and Societies
• Group 4: Sciences
• Group 5: Mathematics
• Group 6: The Arts

Once you figure out your category and have identified a potential research topic, it's time to pick your advisor, who is normally an IB teacher at your school (though you can also find one online ). This person will help direct your research, and they'll conduct the reflection sessions you'll have to do as part of your Extended Essay.

As of 2018, the IB requires a "reflection process" as part of your EE supervision process. To fulfill this requirement, you have to meet at least three times with your supervisor in what the IB calls "reflection sessions." These meetings are not only mandatory but are also part of the formal assessment of the EE and your research methods.

According to the IB, the purpose of these meetings is to "provide an opportunity for students to reflect on their engagement with the research process." Basically, these meetings give your supervisor the opportunity to offer feedback, push you to think differently, and encourage you to evaluate your research process.

The final reflection session is called the viva voce, and it's a short 10- to 15-minute interview between you and your advisor. This happens at the very end of the EE process, and it's designed to help your advisor write their report, which factors into your EE grade.

Here are the topics covered in your viva voce :

• A check on plagiarism and malpractice
• Your reflection on your project's successes and difficulties
• Your reflection on what you've learned during the EE process

Your completed Extended Essay, along with your supervisor's report, will then be sent to the IB to be graded. We'll cover the assessment criteria in just a moment.

We'll help you learn how to have those "lightbulb" moments...even on test day!  

What Should You Write About in Your IB Extended Essay?

You can technically write about anything, so long as it falls within one of the approved categories listed above.

It's best to choose a topic that matches one of the IB courses , (such as Theatre, Film, Spanish, French, Math, Biology, etc.), which shouldn't be difficult because there are so many class subjects.

Here is a range of sample topics with the attached extended essay:

• Biology: The Effect of Age and Gender on the Photoreceptor Cells in the Human Retina
• Chemistry: How Does Reflux Time Affect the Yield and Purity of Ethyl Aminobenzoate (Benzocaine), and How Effective is Recrystallisation as a Purification Technique for This Compound?
• English: An Exploration of Jane Austen's Use of the Outdoors in Emma
• Geography: The Effect of Location on the Educational Attainment of Indigenous Secondary Students in Queensland, Australia
• Math: Alhazen's Billiard Problem
• Visual Arts: Can Luc Tuymans Be Classified as a Political Painter?

You can see from how varied the topics are that you have a lot of freedom when it comes to picking a topic . So how do you pick when the options are limitless?

How to Write a Stellar IB Extended Essay: 6 Essential Tips

Below are six key tips to keep in mind as you work on your Extended Essay for the IB DP. Follow these and you're sure to get an A!

#1: Write About Something You Enjoy

You can't expect to write a compelling essay if you're not a fan of the topic on which you're writing. For example, I just love British theatre and ended up writing my Extended Essay on a revolution in post-WWII British theatre. (Yes, I'm definitely a #TheatreNerd.)

I really encourage anyone who pursues an IB Diploma to take the Extended Essay seriously. I was fortunate enough to receive a full-tuition merit scholarship to USC's School of Dramatic Arts program. In my interview for the scholarship, I spoke passionately about my Extended Essay; thus, I genuinely think my Extended Essay helped me get my scholarship.

But how do you find a topic you're passionate about? Start by thinking about which classes you enjoy the most and why . Do you like math classes because you like to solve problems? Or do you enjoy English because you like to analyze literary texts?

Keep in mind that there's no right or wrong answer when it comes to choosing your Extended Essay topic. You're not more likely to get high marks because you're writing about science, just like you're not doomed to failure because you've chosen to tackle the social sciences. The quality of what you produce—not the field you choose to research within—will determine your grade.

Once you've figured out your category, you should brainstorm more specific topics by putting pen to paper . What was your favorite chapter you learned in that class? Was it astrophysics or mechanics? What did you like about that specific chapter? Is there something you want to learn more about? I recommend spending a few hours on this type of brainstorming.

One last note: if you're truly stumped on what to research, pick a topic that will help you in your future major or career . That way you can use your Extended Essay as a talking point in your college essays (and it will prepare you for your studies to come too!).

#2: Select a Topic That Is Neither Too Broad nor Too Narrow

There's a fine line between broad and narrow. You need to write about something specific, but not so specific that you can't write 4,000 words on it.

You can't write about WWII because that would be a book's worth of material. You also don't want to write about what type of soup prisoners of war received behind enemy lines, because you probably won’t be able to come up with 4,000 words of material about it. However, you could possibly write about how the conditions in German POW camps—and the rations provided—were directly affected by the Nazis' successes and failures on the front, including the use of captured factories and prison labor in Eastern Europe to increase production. WWII military history might be a little overdone, but you get my point.

If you're really stuck trying to pinpoint a not-too-broad-or-too-narrow topic, I suggest trying to brainstorm a topic that uses a comparison. Once you begin looking through the list of sample essays below, you'll notice that many use comparisons to formulate their main arguments.

I also used a comparison in my EE, contrasting Harold Pinter's Party Time with John Osborne's Look Back in Anger in order to show a transition in British theatre. Topics with comparisons of two to three plays, books, and so on tend to be the sweet spot. You can analyze each item and then compare them with one another after doing some in-depth analysis of each individually. The ways these items compare and contrast will end up forming the thesis of your essay!

When choosing a comparative topic, the key is that the comparison should be significant. I compared two plays to illustrate the transition in British theatre, but you could compare the ways different regional dialects affect people's job prospects or how different temperatures may or may not affect the mating patterns of lightning bugs. The point here is that comparisons not only help you limit your topic, but they also help you build your argument.

Comparisons are not the only way to get a grade-A EE, though. If after brainstorming, you pick a non-comparison-based topic and are still unsure whether your topic is too broad or narrow, spend about 30 minutes doing some basic research and see how much material is out there.

If there are more than 1,000 books, articles, or documentaries out there on that exact topic, it may be too broad. But if there are only two books that have any connection to your topic, it may be too narrow. If you're still unsure, ask your advisor—it's what they're there for! Speaking of advisors...

Don't get stuck with a narrow topic!

#3: Choose an Advisor Who Is Familiar With Your Topic

If you're not certain of who you would like to be your advisor, create a list of your top three choices. Next, write down the pros and cons of each possibility (I know this sounds tedious, but it really helps!).

For example, Mr. Green is my favorite teacher and we get along really well, but he teaches English. For my EE, I want to conduct an experiment that compares the efficiency of American electric cars with foreign electric cars.

I had Ms. White a year ago. She teaches physics and enjoyed having me in her class. Unlike Mr. Green, Ms. White could help me design my experiment.

Based on my topic and what I need from my advisor, Ms. White would be a better fit for me than would Mr. Green (even though I like him a lot).

The moral of my story is this: do not just ask your favorite teacher to be your advisor . They might be a hindrance to you if they teach another subject. For example, I would not recommend asking your biology teacher to guide you in writing an English literature-based EE.

There can, of course, be exceptions to this rule. If you have a teacher who's passionate and knowledgeable about your topic (as my English teacher was about my theatre topic), you could ask that instructor. Consider all your options before you do this. There was no theatre teacher at my high school, so I couldn't find a theatre-specific advisor, but I chose the next best thing.

Before you approach a teacher to serve as your advisor, check with your high school to see what requirements they have for this process. Some IB high schools require your IB Extended Essay advisor to sign an Agreement Form , for instance.

Make sure that you ask your IB coordinator whether there is any required paperwork to fill out. If your school needs a specific form signed, bring it with you when you ask your teacher to be your EE advisor.

#4: Pick an Advisor Who Will Push You to Be Your Best

Some teachers might just take on students because they have to and aren't very passionate about reading drafts, only giving you minimal feedback. Choose a teacher who will take the time to read several drafts of your essay and give you extensive notes. I would not have gotten my A without being pushed to make my Extended Essay draft better.

Ask a teacher that you have experience with through class or an extracurricular activity. Do not ask a teacher that you have absolutely no connection to. If a teacher already knows you, that means they already know your strengths and weaknesses, so they know what to look for, where you need to improve, and how to encourage your best work.

Also, don't forget that your supervisor's assessment is part of your overall EE score . If you're meeting with someone who pushes you to do better—and you actually take their advice—they'll have more impressive things to say about you than a supervisor who doesn't know you well and isn't heavily involved in your research process.

Be aware that the IB only allows advisors to make suggestions and give constructive criticism. Your teacher cannot actually help you write your EE. The IB recommends that the supervisor spends approximately two to three hours in total with the candidate discussing the EE.

#5: Make Sure Your Essay Has a Clear Structure and Flow

The IB likes structure. Your EE needs a clear introduction (which should be one to two double-spaced pages), research question/focus (i.e., what you're investigating), a body, and a conclusion (about one double-spaced page). An essay with unclear organization will be graded poorly.

The body of your EE should make up the bulk of the essay. It should be about eight to 18 pages long (again, depending on your topic). Your body can be split into multiple parts. For example, if you were doing a comparison, you might have one third of your body as Novel A Analysis, another third as Novel B Analysis, and the final third as your comparison of Novels A and B.

If you're conducting an experiment or analyzing data, such as in this EE , your EE body should have a clear structure that aligns with the scientific method ; you should state the research question, discuss your method, present the data, analyze the data, explain any uncertainties, and draw a conclusion and/or evaluate the success of the experiment.

#6: Start Writing Sooner Rather Than Later!

You will not be able to crank out a 4,000-word essay in just a week and get an A on it. You'll be reading many, many articles (and, depending on your topic, possibly books and plays as well!). As such, it's imperative that you start your research as soon as possible.

Each school has a slightly different deadline for the Extended Essay. Some schools want them as soon as November of your senior year; others will take them as late as February. Your school will tell you what your deadline is. If they haven't mentioned it by February of your junior year, ask your IB coordinator about it.

Some high schools will provide you with a timeline of when you need to come up with a topic, when you need to meet with your advisor, and when certain drafts are due. Not all schools do this. Ask your IB coordinator if you are unsure whether you are on a specific timeline.

Below is my recommended EE timeline. While it's earlier than most schools, it'll save you a ton of heartache (trust me, I remember how hard this process was!):

• January/February of Junior Year: Come up with your final research topic (or at least your top three options).
• February of Junior Year: Approach a teacher about being your EE advisor. If they decline, keep asking others until you find one. See my notes above on how to pick an EE advisor.
• April/May of Junior Year: Submit an outline of your EE and a bibliography of potential research sources (I recommend at least seven to 10) to your EE advisor. Meet with your EE advisor to discuss your outline.
• Summer Between Junior and Senior Year: Complete your first full draft over the summer between your junior and senior year. I know, I know—no one wants to work during the summer, but trust me—this will save you so much stress come fall when you are busy with college applications and other internal assessments for your IB classes. You will want to have this first full draft done because you will want to complete a couple of draft cycles as you likely won't be able to get everything you want to say into 4,000 articulate words on the first attempt. Try to get this first draft into the best possible shape so you don't have to work on too many revisions during the school year on top of your homework, college applications, and extracurriculars.
• August/September of Senior Year: Turn in your first draft of your EE to your advisor and receive feedback. Work on incorporating their feedback into your essay. If they have a lot of suggestions for improvement, ask if they will read one more draft before the final draft.
• September/October of Senior Year: Submit the second draft of your EE to your advisor (if necessary) and look at their feedback. Work on creating the best possible final draft.
• November-February of Senior Year: Schedule your viva voce. Submit two copies of your final draft to your school to be sent off to the IB. You likely will not get your grade until after you graduate.

Remember that in the middle of these milestones, you'll need to schedule two other reflection sessions with your advisor . (Your teachers will actually take notes on these sessions on a form like this one , which then gets submitted to the IB.)

I recommend doing them when you get feedback on your drafts, but these meetings will ultimately be up to your supervisor. Just don't forget to do them!

The early bird DOES get the worm!

How Is the IB Extended Essay Graded?

Extended Essays are graded by examiners appointed by the IB on a scale of 0 to 34 . You'll be graded on five criteria, each with its own set of points. You can learn more about how EE scoring works by reading the IB guide to extended essays .

• Criterion A: Focus and Method (6 points maximum)
• Criterion B: Knowledge and Understanding (6 points maximum)
• Criterion C: Critical Thinking (12 points maximum)
• Criterion D: Presentation (4 points maximum)
• Criterion E: Engagement (6 points maximum)

How well you do on each of these criteria will determine the final letter grade you get for your EE. You must earn at least a D to be eligible to receive your IB Diploma.

Although each criterion has a point value, the IB explicitly states that graders are not converting point totals into grades; instead, they're using qualitative grade descriptors to determine the final grade of your Extended Essay . Grade descriptors are on pages 102-103 of this document .

Here's a rough estimate of how these different point values translate to letter grades based on previous scoring methods for the EE. This is just an estimate —you should read and understand the grade descriptors so you know exactly what the scorers are looking for.

Here is the breakdown of EE scores (from the May 2021 bulletin):

How Does the Extended Essay Grade Affect Your IB Diploma?

The Extended Essay grade is combined with your TOK (Theory of Knowledge) grade to determine how many points you get toward your IB Diploma.

To learn about Theory of Knowledge or how many points you need to receive an IB Diploma, read our complete guide to the IB program and our guide to the IB Diploma requirements .

This diagram shows how the two scores are combined to determine how many points you receive for your IB diploma (3 being the most, 0 being the least). In order to get your IB Diploma, you have to earn 24 points across both categories (the TOK and EE). The highest score anyone can earn is 45 points.

Let's say you get an A on your EE and a B on TOK. You will get 3 points toward your Diploma. As of 2014, a student who scores an E on either the extended essay or TOK essay will not be eligible to receive an IB Diploma .

Prior to the class of 2010, a Diploma candidate could receive a failing grade in either the Extended Essay or Theory of Knowledge and still be awarded a Diploma, but this is no longer true.

Figuring out how you're assessed can be a little tricky. Luckily, the IB breaks everything down here in this document . (The assessment information begins on page 219.)

40+ Sample Extended Essays for the IB Diploma Programme

In case you want a little more guidance on how to get an A on your EE, here are over 40 excellent (grade A) sample extended essays for your reading pleasure. Essays are grouped by IB subject.

• Business Management 1
• Chemistry 1
• Chemistry 2
• Chemistry 3
• Chemistry 4
• Chemistry 5
• Chemistry 6
• Chemistry 7
• Computer Science 1
• Economics 1
• Design Technology 1
• Design Technology 2
• Environmental Systems and Societies 1
• Geography 1
• Geography 2
• Geography 3
• Geography 4
• Geography 5
• Geography 6
• Literature and Performance 1
• Mathematics 1
• Mathematics 2
• Mathematics 3
• Mathematics 4
• Mathematics 5
• Philosophy 1
• Philosophy 2
• Philosophy 3
• Philosophy 4
• Philosophy 5
• Psychology 1
• Psychology 2
• Psychology 3
• Psychology 4
• Psychology 5
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 1
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 2
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 3
• Sports, Exercise and Health Science 1
• Sports, Exercise and Health Science 2
• Visual Arts 1
• Visual Arts 2
• Visual Arts 3
• Visual Arts 4
• Visual Arts 5
• World Religion 1
• World Religion 2
• World Religion 3

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Not sure where you want to go to college? Read our guide to finding your target school . Also, determine your target SAT score or target ACT score .

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Extended Essay Writers

How to Write a Philosophy Extended Essay for the IB Program

Luke MacQuoid

Greetings, young scholars! If you’re like most IB students I’ve met, the IB Philosophy extended essay sends a minor shiver down your spine. But fret not! As someone who has been around the IB block, I can tell you it’s not as daunting as it seems.

The extended essay is a fantastic opportunity to get into a subject you’re passionate about — in this case, Philosophy. So, let’s begin by discussing why this subject is an excellent choice for your extended essay and how you can ace it.

Why Choose Philosophy for Your IB Extended Essay?

Ah, Philosophy — the realm where intellect and intrigue meet! Let me share why this subject is close to my heart and how it can be the same for you. From my experience, Philosophy is akin to a grand theater where you can discuss everything from the meaning of life to the nuances of ethics, political theories, and even the Philosophy of science. The breadth of topics available is astonishing, offering you a limitless playground of ideas to engage with.

Now, let’s talk about benefits. Philosophy sharpens your skills not only in logical reasoning but also in effective argumentation. We’re discussing not just how to argue but how to present arguments compellingly and convincingly—skills that are golden in your academic life and beyond. You’re actively nurturing these competencies in crafting your IB Philosophy extended essay.

But wait, there’s more! According to general IB criteria, the extended essay aims to develop research, writing, and critical thinking skills in students. Philosophy is the perfect candidate to achieve all these objectives. It equips you to dissect complex arguments, view issues from multiple angles, and articulate your thoughts.

In short, Philosophy is not just another subject; it’s a skill set, a mindset, and a gateway to success in your IB program and life at large.

Getting Started with Your Philosophy Extended Essay

If you need to learn how to write a Philosophy extended essay, you must make a clear action plan. First, you should start by choosing a topic and resources for further research. Let’s talk about this in more detail.

Topic Selection

Indeed, the choice of topic can make or break your essay. I cannot stress this enough: your topic should meet IB extended essay Philosophy guidelines and ignite your passion. It is best to follow this instruction:

• Identify Your Interests . List down areas you’re passionate about — ethics, metaphysics, social Philosophy, etc.
• Broad to Specific . Start with a general subject and gradually narrow it down to a specific research question or problem.
• Check for Relevance . Ensure your topic is aligned with the general IB criteria and Philosophy subject-specific extended essay guidelines.
• Consult Your Advisor . Get their expertise on your topic’s viability, depth, and scope.
• Finalize Topic . Based on feedback and your interests, finalize a compelling and compliant topic with IB guidelines.

So here’s my two cents: start broad, then narrow. If you still need help choosing suitable extended essay topics (Philosophy and its fields), we recommend you read our blog; you will find much inspiration there.

Research and Resources

Research is not just an aspect but the backbone of your extended essay. Your credibility as a scholar rests on the quality and breadth of your research . Where should you look? A variety of places:

• Academic Journals . Use databases like JSTOR or Google Scholar for peer-reviewed articles.
• Primary Texts . Works by philosophers relevant to your topic are crucial.
• Books and Anthologies . Look for compilations of essays or philosophical treatises that discuss your topic.
• Online Resources . Websites from reputable institutions can offer modern perspectives.

But don’t just stop there; use IB extended essay Philosophy examples to understand the nuances of writing. For instance, consider how arguments are structured and primary texts are interpreted. These can serve as excellent templates for constructing arguments and staking claims. From my experience, it can be instrumental in helping you define the structure and flow of your essay.

Extended Essay Guide: Philosophy Research Question

In my opinion, the research question is the backbone of your essay. It sets the direction and the scope of your argument. To make your question engaging, it needs to be specific, focused, and clear.

Use straightforward language to formulate your question. Avoid jargon unless it’s crucial. Also, remember that general or vague questions won’t cut it. “What is good?” is too broad. Instead, consider, “How does Kant’s notion of “good will” differ from Aristotle’s ‘virtuous character’ in defining a good action?”

It would help if you also kept a balance. Your question should be narrow enough for deep analysis but broad enough to meet the word count comfortably. If your question is too broad, you risk skimming the surface; if it’s too narrow, you might run out of things to say.

It isn’t just according to me; it’s straight out of the Philosophy subject-specific extended essay guidelines. Your research question should excite anyone who reads it to see where your arguments will lead. Essentially, you’re writing a quality extended essay question in Philosophy that captivates your reader’s interest.

Philosophy Subject-Specific Extended Essay Guidelines: Structure

While the structure of an extended essay is generally universal across subjects, each subject has its specific guidelines. For Philosophy, these often emphasize the importance of logical consistency and rigorous argumentation.

Therefore, you’ll want to ensure that your arguments are logically sound and that your evidence is reliable. Moreover, consider discussing ethical considerations or potential biases in your research, as this can lend further credibility to your work.

Now, let’s break down the critical structural elements that every IB extended essay should have.

Introduction

The introduction to your essay is like the opening act of a play: it sets the tone, introduces the main characters — in this case, your research question and arguments — and leaves the audience eager for more. First impressions are crucial, and this section is where you make yours. To hit the right notes, your introduction should do several things.

Your introduction should be a microcosm of the essay, offering a snapshot of what’s to come while making a compelling case for why the reader should stick around for the whole picture.

It is where you unpack your arguments, present evidence, and engage with counter-arguments. You’ll divide this section into several subsections, each dedicated to a specific point or argument. Ensure a smooth transition between these sections; transition words and phrases are your allies.

Each subsection should start with a clear topic sentence that outlines what the section will cover, and each should conclude with a sentence that summarizes the section and links it back to your overall argument. It will make your essay more coherent and make it easier for your reader to follow your reasoning.

A firm conclusion does more than summarize the essay; it also synthesizes the key points to show how they contribute to answering your research question. You’ll want to restate your research question and summarize how your arguments and evidence have responded to it.

Importantly, your conclusion should also consider the broader implications of your findings. What do they mean for the field of Philosophy? For society at large?

IB Philosophy Extended Essay: Tips for Writing

Ah, the writing phase ! It is the part where your research and planning begin to pay off. Originality and authenticity are your guiding stars here. Your essay should exude your genuine interest in Philosophy, presenting your unique take on the subject matter. 

Need help with your IB extended essay?

From research and analysis to structuring and editing, our skilled mentors will be by your side, helping you craft an exceptional extended essay that not only meets the wordcount and stringent IB criteria but also reflects your passion for selected IB group .

Don’t just regurgitate what others have said; instead, bring your voice into the conversation. In my opinion, this brings a sense of freshness that examiners appreciate. I also want to share a few other essential thoughts with you in this section.

Language Quality

While it may be tempting to showcase your extensive vocabulary, the main aim should be readability and clarity. Your essay should be intellectually rigorous but still accessible. Imagine you’re telling a fascinating story, albeit a scholarly one. Academic language is a tool, not a hurdle. Use it to build your arguments, not to confuse or alienate your reader.

Review and Revision

Let’s talk about the art of revising. It’s more complex than just reading through your essay to catch typos, although that’s important, too. You’re also looking for logical gaps, ambiguous phrasing, or weak arguments. Ensure each section contributes to your research question and overall argument.

Multiple rounds of revision are usually necessary. No first draft is perfect, nor should it be. Each revision is an opportunity to refine your thoughts and improve your writing. And yes, fresh eyes can be beneficial here.

Submission Process

When you’re confident that your essay is the best it can be, it’s time to submit — but not so fast! Make sure your work complies with all the necessary guidelines. These aren’t just bureaucratic hurdles; they are there to ensure a level playing field and maintain the academic integrity of the IB program. 

So, this is where attention to detail becomes crucial. Check your formatting, citations, and bibliography. Verify that you’ve adhered to the word count and followed any subject-specific guidelines, like those for a Philosophy extended essay.

Final Thoughts

To wrap it up, an IB extended essay in Philosophy is not just an academic requirement but also a fantastic opportunity to fine-tune your skills and get into subjects you’re passionate about. You’ll succeed and genuinely enjoy the process with the right approach and guidance. Now, armed with this guide, create your philosophical masterpiece!

Also, if you need help with an extended essay , you can always contact our experienced IB writers.

Luke MacQuoid has extensive experience teaching English as a foreign language in Japan, having worked with students of all ages for over 12 years. Currently, he is teaching at the tertiary level. Luke holds a BA from the University of Sussex and an MA in TESOL from Lancaster University, both located in England. As well to his work as an IB Examiner and Master Tutor, Luke also enjoys sharing his experiences and insights with others through writing articles for various websites, including extendedessaywriters.com blog

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Philosophy IA Topics and Research Tips

Hello, future philosophers! As a seasoned IB writer with a wealth of experience in the International Baccalaureate (IB) program, I’m excited to guide you through choosing Philosophy IA topics. Philosophy as a subject isn’t just about pondering life’s great questions; it’s about challenging your thought processes and perspectives. Choosing the right topic for your Internal Assessment (IA) can set the tone for this path.

The Essence of Philosophy IA

Now, let’s break down what a Philosophy IA really entails. Essentially, it’s an independent research essay where you explore a specific philosophical question or theme. From my experience, the key to a successful IA lies in selecting a topic that resonates with you and fits within the IB guidelines.

So, how do you pick a winning topic? First, it should ignite your curiosity. Second, it must be broad enough to research but focused enough for a detailed analysis that meets the IA word count . Remember, a well-chosen topic can make your IA writing experience significantly smoother.

First on the list are topics centered around ethics and morality. These include debates on right and wrong, justice, and moral obligations. Personally, I find that essays researching ethical theories or applying them to real-world scenarios are particularly compelling.

Next up, consider venturing into the philosophy of mind. Topics here might include consciousness, free will, or artificial intelligence discussions. These themes are fascinating and highly relevant in today’s tech-driven world.

Political philosophy is another goldmine for IA topics. Here, you could examine concepts of power, governance, and rights. These topics are intellectually stimulating and allow you to research current global issues.

To write interesting papers , simply match your interests with philosophical inquiry. For example, if you’re passionate about environmental issues, why not examine them philosophically? This approach ensures your IA reflects your interests and stands out. But it’s better to avoid overused topics .

The Best Philosophy IA Topics

Here are 30 SL and 30 HL topics, each with a potential research question.

Standard Level (SL) Philosophy IA Topics

The SL IA often involves an examination of philosophical theories, ethical dilemmas, or historical, philosophical debates. It’s about building a foundation in philosophical thought:

• The Ethics of Consumerism . How does consumerism impact ethical decision-making in modern society?
• Introduction to Existentialism . What are the fundamental principles of existentialism, and how do they apply to contemporary life?
• Free Will vs. Determinism . Is free will an illusion in a seemingly deterministic universe?
• Philosophy of Art . How do aesthetic values influence our perception of art?
• Utilitarianism in Everyday Life . How does utilitarianism manifest in everyday ethical decisions?
• Philosophy of Religion . Does the existence of evil challenge the concept of an omnipotent, benevolent deity?
• Social Contract Theory . How relevant is Rousseau’s social contract theory in today’s political climate?
• Ethics of Animal Rights . What are the philosophical arguments for and against animal rights?
• Plato’s Allegory of the Cave . How does Plato’s Allegory of the Cave relate to modern education systems?
• Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics . How does Aristotle’s concept of virtue ethics apply to modern leadership?
• Philosophy of Science . What role does falsifiability play in defining scientific knowledge?
• Personal Identity and the Self . How do philosophical theories of personal identity impact our understanding of the self?
• Environmental Ethics . What ethical responsibilities do humans have towards the environment?
• Moral Relativism vs. Moral Absolutism . Is morality relative to culture or absolute?
• Philosophy and Gender Equality . How can philosophy contribute to the discussion on gender equality?
• Justice in Plato’s Republic . How does Plato’s concept of justice in “The Republic” compare to modern ideas?
• Eastern vs. Western Philosophy . How do Eastern philosophical principles contrast with Western thought?
• The Philosophy of Happiness . What constitutes happiness according to different philosophical traditions?
• Ethics in Technology . How should ethical principles guide the development of new technologies?
• Philosophical Implications of Virtual Reality . How does virtual reality challenge our philosophical understanding of experience?
• The Concept of Freedom . What does it mean to be free according to various philosophical viewpoints?
• The Trolley Problem . What does the Trolley Problem reveal about human moral intuition?
• Feminist Ethics . How does feminist ethics contribute to the broader field of moral philosophy?
• Philosophy of Education . What is the role of philosophy in shaping educational theories and practices?
• Stoicism in Modern Life . How can Stoic philosophy be applied to contemporary life challenges?
• Descartes and the Philosophy of Mind . How does Descartes’ philosophy of mind influence our understanding of consciousness?
• Ethics of Globalization . What are the ethical considerations in the age of globalization?
• Philosophy of Language and Identity . How does language shape our identity and worldview?
• Sartre and Existential Freedom . How does Jean-Paul Sartre’s concept of freedom define human existence?
• Philosophy in Literature . How do philosophical themes manifest in classical literature?

These topics provide a stimulating blend of traditional and contemporary philosophical issues suitable for SL students.

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Higher level (hl) philosophy ia topics.

HL students are required to understand and explain philosophical concepts and engage in a deeper, more nuanced analysis:

• Nietzsche’s Critique of Morality . How does Friedrich Nietzsche’s critique of traditional morality challenge our ethical frameworks?
• Heidegger and the Concept of Being . How does Martin Heidegger’s concept of “Being” redefine human existence?
• Kant’s Theory of Knowledge . How does Immanuel Kant’s theory of knowledge bridge the gap between rationalism and empiricism?
• Phenomenology and Perception . How does phenomenology alter our understanding of human perception?
• Existentialism and Absurdism . How do existentialist and absurdist philosophies approach the meaning of life?
• Philosophy of Language and Meaning . How does the philosophy of language inform our understanding of meaning and communication?
• Simone de Beauvoir and Feminist Philosophy . How does Simone de Beauvoir’s work contribute to contemporary feminist philosophy?
• Ethical Implications of Artificial Intelligence . What are the ethical implications of advancements in artificial intelligence?
• Political Philosophy and Justice . How do contemporary political philosophers conceptualize justice in modern societies?
• Philosophy of Mind and Consciousness . How do contemporary theories in the philosophy of mind address the problem of consciousness?
• Marxism and Modern Capitalism . How does Karl Marx’s critique of capitalism remain relevant in today’s economic systems?
• Postmodernism and Truth . How does postmodernist thought challenge traditional notions of truth?
• Buddhist Philosophy and Western Thought . How does Buddhist philosophy contrast with and complement Western philosophical traditions?
• Ethics of Biomedical Advances . What are the ethical considerations of recent advancements in biomedical technology?
• Quantum Mechanics and Philosophy . How do the principles of quantum mechanics challenge traditional philosophical views on reality?
• Wittgenstein’s Language Games . How does Wittgenstein’s language games theory challenge traditional notions of meaning and understanding?
• The Ethics of Transhumanism . What are the ethical implications of human enhancement through transhumanism?
• Derrida and Deconstruction . How does Derrida’s deconstruction theory alter our understanding of text and meaning?
• The Philosophy of Time . How do different philosophical theories conceptualize time and its impact on human existence?
• Hegel’s Dialectics . How does Hegel’s dialectical method contribute to our understanding of history and progress?
• Philosophy of Artificial Consciousness . What philosophical challenges arise from the possibility of artificial consciousness?
• Arendt and the Banality of Evil . How does Hannah Arendt’s “banality of evil” concept apply to contemporary moral issues?
• Philosophical Implications of Quantum Physics . How does quantum physics challenge classical philosophical perspectives on reality?
• Kierkegaard and the Concept of Anxiety . How does Søren Kierkegaard’s analysis of anxiety contribute to existential philosophy?
• Rawls’ Theory of Justice . How does John Rawls’ theory of justice apply to modern social and political issues?
• Philosophy of Emotions . How do contemporary philosophers understand the nature and significance of human emotions?
• Merleau-Ponty and Phenomenology of Perception . How does Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology of perception challenge traditional ideas of perception and reality?
• Camus and the Absurd . How does Albert Camus’ concept of the absurd define human existence in a meaningless universe?
• Ethics of Genetic Engineering . What are the moral and philosophical implications of genetic engineering in humans?
• Philosophy and Mental Health . How does philosophy contribute to our understanding and treatment of mental health issues?

The HL IA demands a more critical approach. Students are expected to research, dissect, challenge, and extend philosophical ideas. It is about synthesizing different philosophical viewpoints, evaluating arguments rigorously, and even contributing new perspectives to existing philosophical discussions.

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Research and Analysis: The Heart of Your Philosophy IA

In my opinion, the essence of a Philosophy IA lies in how well you can integrate research into your argument. According to general IB criteria, the research component is not just about gathering information; it’s about finding sources that genuinely deepen your understanding and support your thesis.

Moreover, analysis in a Philosophy IA isn’t just a mere presentation of facts or a regurgitation of existing philosophical arguments. It’s about dissecting these arguments, examining their strengths and weaknesses, and weaving them into your narrative. As I know from my time guiding IB students, this critical analysis transforms a good IA into an exceptional one. It demonstrates your grasp of the subject matter and your ability to think independently and critically.

Finally, a word of advice from my experience: always keep your research focused and relevant. It’s easy to get lost in the vast sea of philosophical literature. However, successful students can distill this information into coherent, concise arguments directly supporting their thesis. In essence, the research and analysis in your Philosophy IA should reflect your understanding of the topic and your ability to engage with philosophical concepts at a high level.

The Bottom Line

In conclusion, choosing and developing your Philosophy IA topic is an exciting intellectual challenge. It’s an opportunity to showcase your critical thinking skills and passion for philosophy. So, take on the challenge and enjoy the process of creating something truly unique. In addition, our IB IA Writing Service specialists are on hand for any guidance or assistance you may need.

Nick Radlinsky

Nick Radlinsky is a devoted educator, marketing specialist, and management expert with more than 15 years of experience in the education sector. After obtaining his business degree in 2016, Nick embarked on a quest to achieve his PhD, driven by his commitment to enhancing education for students worldwide. His vast experience, starting in 2008, has established him as a reputable authority in the field.

Nick's article, featured in Routledge's " Entrepreneurship in Central and Eastern Europe: Development through Internationalization ," highlights his sharp insights and unwavering dedication to advancing the educational landscape. Inspired by his personal motto, "Make education better," Nick's mission is to streamline students' lives and foster efficient learning. His inventive ideas and leadership have contributed to the transformation of numerous educational experiences, distinguishing him as a true innovator in his field.

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What Are the Easiest and Hardest Extended Essay Subjects?

In this article, we discuss the easiest and hardest extended essay subjects, providing insights to help you make an informed decision. From the creative freedom found in the Arts to the demanding nature of the Experimental Sciences, we break down into what makes a subject approachable or daunting.

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100 IB Extended Essay Topic Ideas!

One of the biggest keys to the Extended Essay is choosing which subject you want to write your work in and developing that crucial research question. Read on to find inspiration for topics across a wide range of subjects.

Extended Essay: The Love/Hate aspect of the IB

One of the biggest keys to the Extended Essay is choosing which subject you want to write your work in and developing that crucial research question. Annoyingly, coming up with that idea and research question can be the toughest part of the entire process. Writing 4,000 words about something you are interested in is a big ask and it often feels impossible to narrow down your thoughts. To make everything super clear, here are 100 Extended Essay Topics for you to draw inspiration from! Use these as a springboard to create your own research question !

Get Support from A Top Tutor Today

At Lanterna we have over 300 tutors who smashed their Extended Essay. They know exactly how to get an A in your EE and can give you tips and tricks on how you can do the same. What are you waiting for? Get your own tutor today !

How to Begin Your IB Extended Essay

To make everything super clear, here are 100 Extended Essay Topics for you to draw inspiration from! Use these as a springboard to  create your own research question !

Get Support from a Top Tutor Today

At Lanterna, we have over 300 tutors who smashed their Extended Essay. They know exactly how to get an A in your EE and can give you tips and tricks on how you can do the same. What are you waiting for? Get your own tutor today!

10 Steps to Writing an Extended Essay

Before we look at specific topics for your essay, let’s recap the 10-steps you’ll need to follow to complete your extended essay.

1. Define the Topic and Draft the Research Question

2. Create a Timeline

3. Identify and gather Sources

4. Set Deadlines

5. Plan the structure according to the total word count

6. Evaluate

7. independent Research

8. Write the extended essay draft

10. Present

By following the steps above, you should be able to produce a logical and coherent rationale to follow when writing the extended essay for your IB diploma programme.

By starting with a solid research question, you’ll be able to put an extended essay of global significance together, from the research and writing process all the way through to your final submission with a favourable extended essay grade.

Below, we’re sharing 10 topics across 10 subjects to inspire your next IB extended essay.

1. How the change of habitat affects an X organism?

2. How does climate affect the growth of X plant?

3. Can photosynthesis take place without sunlight?

4. What is the effect of age and gender on the photoreceptor cells in the human retina?

5. How is climate change impacting the appearance of coral reefs?

6. An evaluation of how  antioxidants  work in our bodies?

7. Does hand sanitizer, hand soap or antibacterial wipes have the greatest ability to inhibit the growth of E. Coli?

8. To what extent do live cultures in yogurts/milk/other dairy products reduce the concentration of lactose present over the course of a 2 hour incubation period at x°C?

9. What is the relationship between  population density  between X and population size of X?

10. What is the relationship between indoleacetic acid, a growth hormone, and the growth of X (a crop)?

11. How does human influence impact an aquatic ecosystem?

12. How can one organize a pollution check along a X canal in X?

13. What is the effect of the increased ecological footprint in the  Amazon ?

14. What are the forest and woodland restoration in Siberia, Russia and which one is most effective?

15. How does human interference cause ecological imbalances in an X city/country/continent?

16. What is the impact of urban development on the  bee population  in X city?

17. What are the differences in the conversation efforts in Yosemite National Park (California, USA) and the Lake District National Park (UK)?

18. To what extent have healthcare policies in X country influenced their human population curve?

19. How have changes in environmental systems influenced the value system of X country?

20. How has X landfill site affected the surrounding terrestrial ecosystem?

21. What is the profitability of  airline companies ?

22. How does unemployment affect the market?

23. Why did X recession occur?

24. How did the financial Policy affect the economy in X?

25. How effective are government policies in reducing overconsumption of alcohol (specifically hard liquor)?

26. To what extent are public buses and subways substitute goods in a country?

27. How did the tax reform in country x affect its growth and development? (many countries to choose from)

28. To what extent was weak government policy responsible for the Latin American financial crisis of 1997?

29. How effective is the  Big Mac Index  in measuring purchasing power parity?

30. To what extent would the UK suffer from leaving the European Customs Union if Brexit happens?

31. Is there an association between viewing violence on television and the display of violent acts?

32. What motivational climate should a coach employ in order to achieve optimal performance in athletes?

33. How does  X hormone affect human behavior ?

34. Compare theories explaining altruism in human behaviour

35. Discuss short-term and long-term consequences of exposure to violence

36. Why do relationships change or end?

37. Discuss how  social variables (poverty, parenting, educational environment) may the affect cognitive environment.

38. To what extent do mirror neurons play a role in empathy? (2014)

39. To what extent does Mindfulness help people cope with General Anxiety Disorder (GAD)?

40. To what extent is drug therapy effective in the treatment of bipolar disorder?

41. Does the British Parliamentary reforms act of 1832 deserve its title as the great reform act?

42. To what extent are there similarities in Hitler and Mussolini’s Rise to Power?

43. To what extent did Mao’s tackle the problems which he faced?

44. Was Tsar Alexander II of Russia reforms a success or failure?

45. To what extent was the bombing of Dresden in 1945 justifiable?

46. To what extent can  Sweden be considered neutral during WWII ?

47. The impact of structural economic weakness on the collapse of the Soviet Union.

48. How were women treated differently in 1920s and 1950s Great Britain?

49. Why did Israel win the  Six Day War  of 1967?

50. What role did economics play in the unification of Germany from 1834 to 1871?

English Literature

51. What are the Compare and Contrast Jane Austen Books?

52. How does Joseph Conrad’s portray Racism in A Heart of Darkness?

53. How does Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman critique today’s capitalist society? The American Dream?

54. To what extent does Chris McCandless in Jon Krakauer’s Into the Wild escape familial influence?

55. What are the similarities and differences between J.K. Rowling’s characterization of Severus Snape in Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows?

56. How does Yaa Gyasi use structure in her novel Homegoing to portray the evolution of time?

57. What is the impact of the social context on Holden Caufield and Huckleberry Finn?

58. How does Sylvia Path’s use of Inanimate objects in Bell Jar?

59. How is the empowerment of Feminine portrayed in the Lord of the Rings?

60. Compare the political rhetoric as used in the inaugural addresses of George W. Bush, Barack Obama, and Donald Trump.

61. The design, construction and calibration of an apparatus for measuring lipid concentration in milk.

62. What is the effect of a change in the optimal lift on the horizontal gliding distance of an aircraft?

63. How does the sugar concentration affect the refractive index of water?

64. How does temperature affect the viscosity of X juice/soda?

65. Is the relationship between temperature and conductivity and insulators and conductors?

66. What is the Oberth Effect?

67. What is the temperature dependence of work performed on an AA battery?

68. How can the rotational frequency of a fan driven by a flame measure distance?

69. Do wine bottles of different shapes behave as Helmholtz resonators?

70. How does the diameter of a wheel affect stability in different weather conditions?

71. What factors influence the location of industries in country/city X?

72. An investigation into the significance of preserving the quality of water in a continent/country/city?

73. An investigation into the degree to which City X can be considered a Sustainable City/Community.

74. To what extent is Biodiversity being managed successfully in city X?

75. To what extent does the education and employment of women affect Country x’s fertility rate?

76. To what extent do gender, educational attainment, and working parameters influence obesity risk?

77. To what extent has urban development affected human thermal comfort levels in Country/city x (a country/city that has developed in a rapid rate over the past decades)?

78. To what extent is the Company x corporate waste management program effective, demonstrating environmental sustainability?

79. To what extent is biodiversity being managed successfully at National Park X?

80. What types of urban design encourage high rates of vandalism in X neighbourhoods?

81. The kinetics of Enzymatic Reactions.

82. How do Iron Intake Diets differ in X country?

83. What are the different factors that affect the iodine values in cooking oils?

84. What is the effect of standing time and temperate on the acid content in X juice or soda?

85. Can caffeine in tea or coffee be reduced?

86. What is the effect of temperature on the souring of milk?

87. What are the sources of error in calorimetry?

88. Does brushing your teeth affect the pH in your mouth after eating?

89. How does changing the concentration of the reagents affect the formation and spacing between Liesehang rings in the reaction between X chloride and X when conducted in a test tube?

90. What effect does the coating of aspirin tablets have on the hydrolysis of aspirin?

Social and Cultural Anthropology

91. How clothing relates to the cultural anthropology of X culture.

92. The extent to which social media networks affect different societies.

93. The relationship between ritual, myths and faith in an X society.

94. The history of rituals in X culture.

95. How different marriage rituals inform the cultural anthropology of X culture.

96. Climate change and its impact on the evolution of different creatures on the planet.

97. Understanding the social and cultural anthropology of the supernatural in X culture.

98. An analysis of body modification in relation to social and cultural anthropology.

100. Chaste systems and social ranks in societies.

There are so many class subjects that can form the basis of your extended essay, including these popular six subjects:

– Information technology

– Computer science

– Health science

– World studies

– Visual arts

– Business management

Extended essays are a great way to improve your writing skills in academic writing. Essays of a high standard that demonstrate critical thinking and in depth analysis can be submitted to academic journals. These have the potential to reach the global society.

Start Writing Your Extended Essay Topic

We hope this gave you some great inspiration for the variation of topics available for your Extended Essay . The research question you select is what will carry you through the entire process, so be sure to choose wisely!

Remember, if you are looking for more help with your Extended Essay, make sure to check out our guide which will tell you exactly how to plan, structure, research and write your Extended Essay!

Grab Free Extended Essay Resources!

No matter the subject groups in your diploma program, we’re here to help all of our IB students. Whether you’re writing about social and cultural anthropology, business management, design technology, or scientific methods for your IB diploma, Lanterna has you covered.

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2016-2017 IB Extended Essay: Sample IB EE's

• Workshop 1: Getting started
• Workshop 2: EE Options
• Workshop 3: Selecting a topic
• Workshop 4:Research Questions
• Workshop 5: Supervisors and Reflections
• Finding Books & Ebooks
• Primary Sources
• Citation Guide
• Subject guidance
• Sample IB EE's

• Biology (2018 new rubric)
• Biology Light Intensity
• Does Age Have an Effect on Short-term Memory of 6 to 18 Year Old Students?

Chemistry: 

• Chemistry 1
• What are the Alternative Fuels for the Depleting Fossil Fuels and which is the Best Fuel in Accordance with the Energy Output?
• A Copper Ions
• Chemistry 3

Design Technology

• Does Hull Trim and Balance Affect the Speed of a Boat?

Individuals & Society:

• Market Form of the Retail Petroleum Supply Industry in Parklands
• Economics 1
• Economics 2
• Economics 3

I have an exemplar but the file is too big to upload.  If you are interested in this topic I can share the essay with you.

• Geography 2
• History EE (2018 new rubric)
• To What Extent was the Establishment of the State of Israel in Palestine in 1948, Influenced by Theodor Herzl?

Information Technology in a Global Society

• Philosophy 1
• Philosophy 2
• Philosophy 3
• Philosophy 4
• Psychology EE (2018 new rubric)
• Applied Behavior Analysis and Early Intervention: The Extent of Recovery from Autism
• Psychology 1
• Psychology 2
• Psychology 3

Social & Cultural Anthropology

• Social & Cultural Anthropology 1
• Social & Cultural Anthropology 2

World Religions

• To What Extent do the Core Scriptural Teachings of Sikhism Permit them to Marry Outside of the Religion?
• World Religions 1
• World Religions 2

Language Acquisition:

• French: Les Liaisons Dangereuses

Literature & Language 

•   Journeys in the Inferno and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz   
•   Toni Morrison 

Math: 

•   Cryptography and Rubik's Cube: An Investigative Analysis   
•   Pascal's Triangle 

Visual Arts: 

•   How Does the work of Yinka Shonibare Illustrate the Changing Role of African Art in a Global Society? 
• Ballet's Accessibility and Costumes Affecting Society's View of the Art Form
• Visual Arts 1
• Visual Arts 4

Interdisciplinary Essays:

Environmental Systems & Societies

• ESS Extended Essay (2018 new rubric)

World Studies

• World Studies EE History, Economics, & Politics  (2018 new rubric)
• Does the Production of Dairy and Meat from Dairy Cows in the United States affect the Environment and Well Being of Animals and Humans?
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IB EE examples for all subjects

Filter exemplars, to what extent has satya nadella's transformational leadership style contributed to creating a "growth mindset" at microsoft corporation, to what extent does the tension being applied on a wire affect the resonance frequency, want to get full marks for your ee allow us to review it for you 🎯, how does the total energy supplied during ultrasonic cavitation of benzene affect the integrated photoluminescence intensity and quantum yield of graphene quantum dots (gqds), to what extent was the british government responsible for the collapse of the sunningdale agreement of 1973, to what extent does the type of alcohol used in the fischer-speier esterification reaction affect the average rate of reaction as measured through back titration., fast track your coursework with mark schemes moderated by ib examiners. upgrade now 🚀, to what extent does global self-esteem influence academic performance, to what extent has zoom’s freemium business model influenced its market leadership position in the north american video conferencing market from 2020 to 2021, to what extent does the presence of acetaminophen (tylenol), polymixin b (polysporin), and diphenhydramine hydrochloride (benadryl) in the growth medium of cotoneaster acutifolius affect the average change in leaf length over a period of 15 days in five different concentrations, to what extent do different concentrations of magnesium nitrate (10, 20, 30, 40, 50 mm) affect the concentration of chlorophyll a and b in ocimum basilicum at 645 nm and 662 nm wavelength using spectrophotometer, how does 5g of different types of oils (palm oil, avocado oil, castor oil, and olive oil) contribute to the production of soap bars with a ph level closest to 7 measured at constant temperature (50°c) and after constant time of refluxing (30 minutes) through the saponification process, how have amazon's market strategies contributed in successfully growing its e-commerce business internationally, to what extent has the change in corporate leadership at apple inc. from steve jobs to tim cook impacted the company's innovation and product development, fluid’s density effect on falling objects, to what extent will toyota’s diversification help increase business revenues and market share, to what extent does vivienne westwood's sustainable fashion initiatives provide it with a competitive advantage over other luxury brands, to what extent were queer people liberated in weimar germany, 1919-1933, to what extent does market-oriented approach give netflix, inc. a competitive advantage in the streaming entertainment industry, how is the lift at various angles of attack affected by flap deflection angles, to what extent do different species of chili pepper consumption biologically affect the rate of lipid digestion in terms of ph change within 30 minutes, to what extent do phytochemicals such as resveratrol, glyceollin and epigallocatechin-3-gallate (egcg) possess comparable antibacterial effects against staphylococcus aureus bacteria to a non-prescription otitis externa (oe) treatments such as ciprofloxacin using bacillus subtilis as a prokaryotic model organism, to what extent is blood pressure related to the development of alzheimer’s disease in people in age above 50, to what extent does oxytocin affect interpersonal trust in young adults, how has apple used sustainable innovation to gain a competitive edge, to what extent do extracts of allium sativum (garlic) and zingiber officinale (ginger) reduce antimicrobial activity and how effective it is compared to antibiotics, how do different concentrations of punica granatum extracts: peel, flower and leaves (10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/ml) affect the rate of reaction of α-amylase and compare with metformin (anti-diabetic drug) as measured by a spectrophotometer at 587nm, how effective is the cone repair technique when treating ebstein’s anomaly in comparison to other treatments, to what extent do social networking sites increase rates of anxiety in adolescents, what effect does the difference in radius at the top and bottom of the roller coaster loop have on the maximum change in g-force that a passenger experiences, to what extent can four seasons hotel’s success be attributed to its corporate culture and isadore sharp’s leadership style, how does the concentration of harpagoside, which is identified by the surface area of the spot on the chromatography paper, changes in the equine mane over the period of one month after gradual consumption of the supplement “devil’s claw”, what is the relationship between the height of the siphon and the flow velocity out of the siphon, what is the effect of salinity stress (0, 50, 100, 150, 200 mm nacl) measured through microscopic (stomatal aperture) and morphological (leaf area, leaf dry mass, and root length) characteristics on pre-treated radish (raphanus sativus) seeds with magnetopriming (48 hours), to what extent has the launch of disney+ proven successful in advancing disney’s digital presence and establishing market dominance in the subscription-based video on demand (svod) market, how could family-based therapies such as cff-cbt, fft, and fft-hr be implemented in the treatment of pediatric bipolar disorder, to what extent were the nuremberg trials defendants afforded a fair due process, to what extent has google's diversification into the wearables industry increased its profitability, to what extent has japan taken steps to end overfishing in order to meet sustainable development goal 14, to what extent was the popular violence of the cultural revolution driven by mao’s need to eliminate opposition, to what extent has the vehicular emissions scheme (ves) been effective in increasing the consumption of light electric vehicles between 2018 and 2020 in singapore, how does the type of solvent (ethanol, propanone) and its solvent to water ratio (20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100% v/v) in the extraction of polyphenols via ultrasound-assisted extraction (uae), affect the total phenolic content extracted from rosemary (rosmarinus officinalis), quantified by folin-ciocalteu assay.

Extended Essay (IB): Choosing a subject and topic

• The Inquiry Process
• EE Seminar 1
• EE Seminar 2
• IT Workshop 1
• EE Investigation Days
• EE Writing Days
• Choosing a subject and topic
• Developing a line of inquiry
• Finding and selecting sources
• Working with ideas
• Expressing your ideas
• Using ManageBac
• Supervisor resources
• Who can help?

For your EE you have the freedom to focus on almost any topic and you will write your own question to answer.  However, your topic must fit into a single DP subject (unless you choose to write an interdisciplinary essay, such as a World Studies EE that covers a topic “of contemporary global significance” and is likely to encompass two subject areas).

Given the academic challenge and level expected of an EE, you are strongly advised to choose a subject that you are currently studying, preferably at Higher Level.

Introduction to the Extended Essay

What is the Extended Essay?

• Compulsory element of the core, along with TOK and CAS
• Inquiry-based research project resulting in an essay of up to 4,000 words
• Topic of your choice, but must be based in a DP subject * and meet subject-specific requirements
• You are strongly encouraged to do your essay in one of your HL subjects

*It is possible, under certain circumstances, to combine two subjects and do a World Studies essay but we do not currently recommend this.

What do I need to do?

This guide is just to get your thinking started.

You are going to be spending nine months on your Extended Essay - it is very important to choose a topic that actually interests you, or it is going to be a very long nine months...

Good preparation is much more effective for finding inspiration than last minute panic!

CALVIN AND HOBBES © Watterson. Reprinted with permission of ANDREWS MCMEEL SYNDICATION.  All rights reserved.

How do I choose a subject?

• Think about your interests outside the classroom then check whether they might fit into any IB subject areas.
• Think about your IB subjects, particularly your HL subjects. Which would (and wouldn't) you enjoy exploring in more depth?
• Make a list of the topics (for one or more different subject areas) that you have enjoyed in that subject area and a list of topics you haven’t covered but wish you had. You might want to chat to your teachers or have a look in your textbooks.
• Think about any career aspirations you might have, or any ideas for further study, and they could point you in a direction.

Now have a look at the Subject Group Overviews , below, to see what an EE in that group might involve. It is worth comparing a couple of different subject groups.

Subject Group Overviews

• Group 1: Studies in language and literature
• Group 2: Language acquisition (incl. Classical Languages)
• Group 3: Individuals and societies
• Group 4: Experimental sciences
• Group 5: Mathematics
• Group 6: The Arts
• Interdisciplinary essays

• Category 1 Studies of one or more literary works originally written in the language in which the essay is presented.
• Category 2 Studies of a literary work or works originally written in the language of the essay compared with one or more literary works originally written in another language. (The work originally written in another language may be studied in translation.)
• Category 3 Studies in language based on one or more texts originally produced in the language in which the essay is presented.

Students and teachers must indicate at the point of upload which category of essay they are submitting."

From: IBO (2020) Extended Essay: Studies in language and literature

Students working on a language acquisition EE must demonstrate an in-depth understanding of the language, culture and society or literature studied. This understanding must be shown in the form of:

• an analysis of a cultural context or a specific text OR
• an analysis of trends in the culture studied and the impact of a cultural change on the form or use of the language OR
• an analysis and comparison of literary texts.

For those undertaking a classical Greek or Latin EE, the focus is on demonstrating an understanding of a relevant or significant aspect of the language, literature and civilization of ancient Greece or Rome."

From: IBO (2020) Extended Essay: Language acquisition including classical languages

Note that you may not do your EE in a language you are studying at ab initio level .

The individuals and societies EE is intended to encourage the systematic and critical study of:

• human experience and behaviour
• physical, economic and social environments
• the history and development of social and cultural institutions.

Students’ choice of topic should enable them to recognize that the content and methodologies of the subjects are contestable and that their study requires critical thinking.

Students must have sufficient grounding in the subject under which they submit their essay: reading a textbook or consulting an encyclopedia while writing the EE will not compensate for a lack of proper background knowledge."

From: IBO (2020) Extended Essay: Individuals and societies

Note: The IB considers Environmental Systems and Societies EEs to be interdisciplinary, so materials for these can be found under the Interdisciplinary essays tab, above.

"An extended essay (EE) in the sciences gives students an opportunity to apply a range of skills while researching a topic of personal interest in the field. Students working on a science EE must demonstrate an in-depth analysis of the subject matter studied, be it biology, chemistry, computer science, design technology, physics or sports, exercise and health science. This understanding must be shown in the form of a research paper involving a wellformulated research question. Students should be advised that while there is overlap between the subjects, their study should reflect one specific science area. For example:

• biology—dealing with living organisms and life processes
• chemistry—dealing with the composition, characterization and transformation of substances

...The nature of the topic under investigation should be different for each subject area and students should be careful if they undertake essays that may blur the boundaries between two science subjects. For example, when studying the pH of a body of water, students may investigate the chemicals responsible for the observed pH (chemistry), or the effect of the pH on the biota (biology)."

From: IBO (2020) The Sciences: an introduction from Extended Essay: The sciences

• the applicability of mathematics to solve both real and abstract problems
• the beauty of mathematics, as in, for instance, geometry or fractal theory
• the elegance of mathematics in the proving of theorems as in, for example, number theory
• the origin and subsequent development of a branch of mathematics over a period of time, measured in tens, hundreds or thousands of years
• the links between different branches of mathematics, or the way that branch of mathematics has been born, or has flourished, as a result of technology.

Students should be advised on the importance of formulating logical and coherent reasons for selecting a particular topic for the EE, the need to identify a well-thought-out research question and the requirement to search for the mathematical problems that require a solution. Students must be advised that mathematical research is a long-term and open-ended exploration of a set of related mathematical problems that are based on personal observations. The answers to these problems connect to and build upon each other over time."

From: IBO (2020) Extended Essay: Mathematics

• a coherent analysis and interpretation of their chosen area in relation to a posed research question
• the testing and validation of the research and consideration of its effect on the practice of the investigated area of the arts
• development and exploration in a disciplined and imaginative way of an area of study specifically appropriate to the curriculum area chosen
• a link to a practical dimension.

Each subject area poses its own unique set of challenges. Therefore, the approach to the topic of investigation should reflect the particular methodology most appropriate to the arts subject being studied. Students should have logical and coherent reasons for selecting a particular topic for their essay, a well-thought out research question and an approach that allows them to develop a reasoned argument.

...While there may be overlap between the subjects in the arts and common approaches, the research topic must clearly relate to one specific arts area. If a student chooses a research area that blurs the boundaries between two arts subjects, they must ensure that their essay’s emphasis clearly lies within the arts subject for which they are submitting it. Crucially, the topic selected should reflect each student’s particular interest and enthusiasm within that subject area."

From: IBO (2020) Extended Essay: The arts

For example, in literature and performance, students focus on the nature of the relationships that occur between a chosen text and its adaptation for performance; in world studies an issue of contemporary global significance is explored through the lenses of two subjects ; and in environmental systems and societies the interaction and integration of natural environmental systems and human societies are explored

Students undertaking one of these options must demonstrate a solid understanding of their area of research, taking a fully integrated approach. This examination must be shown in the form of:

• a coherently written and structured essay that effectively addresses an area of research, taking an interdisciplinary approach
• bringing together concepts, methods and approaches from across different subjects
• the development and exploration of an area of study specifically appropriate to the interdisciplinary choice

The most critical stage in preparing for the EE is the formulation of a logical and coherent rationale for selecting a particular topic for the extended essay, a topic that offers enough scope to provide material for a substantial essay , and the development of ideas around the topic and research question that examine existing views and argue against them."

From: IBO (2020) Interdisciplinary essays: an introduction from Extended Essay: Interdisciplinary essays

We do not recommend undertaking an EE in World Studies. If you choose to do so anyway, make sure that you consider very carefully whether your topic would fit the requirements of a single subject discipline instead. It can be challenging to juggle the requirements of two different subjects while undertaking a piece of academic research like this for the first time, particularly if you do not currently study one or both of the subjects.

Note that the Treatment of the Topic section of the Subject Guide for World Studies says that:

"It is expected that students will have a good grounding in at least one of the Diploma Programme subjects used in the EE.

If they are unfamiliar with a discipline used, they must access its syllabus so that they can identify the concepts, terminology and modes of thinking required for their EE. (Many IB syllabuses contain lists of key concepts.)"

This means that whether or not you are currently studying either or both of the subject areas your World Studies EE is based in  you will need to use DP Level concepts, terminology and modes of thinking appropriate to both subject areas.

Subject Specific Guidance

Use the links below to explore the Subject-Specific Guidance for your chosen subject. Note that it is very important to use the side navigation menu to make sure you have read ALL the relevant guidance (see example for Biology, below).

You MUST read the subject-specific guidance before completing your Supervisor Application Form, and reread it before completing your Research Proposal Log. You might find it helpful to take notes using the Using the Subject-Specific Guidelines table.

Electronic versions of these can be found at the top right hand side of this page (follow links). If you wish to submit your handwritten version to ManageBac, you may upload a (legible!) photograph.

Ethical guidelines

You must address the IB ethical guidelines in your Research Proposal and follow them throughout the EE process. Some Subject Guides will contain specific ethical guidelines for that subject, but here are some general guides you might need to refer to:

Extended essays from previous years

Past essays

It can be really useful at this stage to look at essays from previous Oakham students, to see what kinds of topics they investigated and what their final essays looked like. These are upstairs in the library and can be looked at while you are here.

Please remember:

• These are all the essays from past Oakhamians and they were awarded a range of grades (which are recorded on the contents pages). They are not a set of examples of 'good' essays or even 'good' titles.
• There have been several rule changes in the past, most notably in 2018, so make sure you are aware of the current rules.

You may take photographs of individual pages (such as the contents pages). You may not photograph or photocopy whole essays.

How do I choose a topic?

Go back to your brainstormed list of topics from the first session:

• Eliminate any that you don’t really want to write about and focus on the rest.
• Use the ideas on the mind map below to examine these topics and decide which might be worth further exploration. You might choose to make a mind map like this for some of your topics.

Before deciding on a topic you should do some preliminary research to see what information is out there. Make a few brief notes as you go.

• General internet browsing: You could begin with some freestyle internet searching on a broad topic that interests you. Search for your topic online, give yourself an hour to follow links and see where they take you – keeping an EE focus, of course!
• Subscription Databases : While you will almost certainly search the databases extensively for your research once you have chosen a topic, you can also browse them to help you to chose one. See the ' Browsing our subscription databases ' box below for advice on the best ones to choose for this. Using the subscription databases to help you to choose a topic also means that you are guaranteed to be able to find high quality information on that topic.
• Talk to your teachers, friends and family

Put your notes away, forget about what you have read for a few days, then see what you remember.  This time and distance is important as it is likely that you will remember what is of most interest to you, and so the angle you should develop.

Aim to have three suggestions for topic areas you might like to explore for your EE to explore further before making a decision .

Browsing our subscription databases

You are likely to have used our databases in the past to search for information on specific topics, but many of them are also excellent when browsing for ideas. I have made some suggestions below. You will need to access them from the list on our Subscription Databases page (using the log in information given if you are not on the school network).

An excellent series of ebooks providing a short, academic introduction to a wide range of topics. Choose 'Browse by subject' from the menu bar to explore them (or use the excellent search facility if you know which topic you are interested in).

An online encyclopaedia that you can trust and cite! Choose 'Advanced' then 'Explore: Articles' to browse Britannica in a range of different subject areas.

Hodder Education Magazines

Although aimed at A-level students, browsing these Review magazines may be a good way to identify a broad topic of interest. After you log-in, you can choose to search the whole database or choose a specific subject and browse/search within it.

Other, subject-specific resources

• Art: Oxford Art
• Drama: Drama Online
• Economics: Financial Times and Gale Newspaper Collection
• English literature: Connell Guides, EBSCO Literary Reference Centre, emagazine and MASSOLIT (a video-based resource)
• Music: Naxos Music Library, Oxford Music
• Politics: Financial Times and Gale Newspaper Collection 

Using the Subject Specific Guidelines

This table will help you work with the Subject-Specific Guidelines as you choose your topic. You are not required to submit this form to your supervisor, but you might find it helpful when filling in your Supervisor Application Form and Research Proposal.

AI Prompt Catcher

• AI Prompt Catcher Example

This Prompt Catcher  must  be completed if you are using AI tools as part of your initial research.  Since examiners cannot access the exact AI-generated content subsequently, you must cite and reference the tool in your essay and include a copy of the Prompt Catcher containing the generated content and the prompt you used to generate it in an appendix.

Annotated bibliography

This resource will help you to keep track of all the different sources you find. Once you start working with each source in more detail, you will also need a tool like the Investigative Journal to organise your notes.

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691 Philosophy Essay Topics & Good Ideas

• Icon Calendar 18 May 2024
• Icon Page 5472 words
• Icon Clock 25 min read

Philosophy essay topics are vast, engaging, and intellectually stimulating, focusing on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, aesthetics, and more. They challenge students to ponder on fundamental questions, from the nature of reality and existence to the basis of morality, the meaning of life, and the intricacies of human knowledge. From exploring ancient philosophies to scrutinizing contemporary philosophical debates, various concepts are designed to ignite critical thinking, enhance argumentative skills, and deepen students’ understanding of the world, themselves, and their place within it. Thus, philosophical essay topics, by their nature, encourage students to develop and formulate their own unique perspectives, fostering a culture of intellectual curiosity and rigorous analysis.

Best Philosophy Topics

• Unraveling Kant’s Perspective on Moral Imperatives
• Analyzing the Concept of Existentialism in Sartre’s Works
• Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave”: A Modern Interpretation
• Ethical Implications of Artificial Intelligence: A Philosophical View
• Nihilism’s Influence on Contemporary Thought and Culture
• The Intersection of Eastern Philosophy and Modern Science
• Nietzsche’s “Will to Power”: Relevance in the 21st Century
• Stoicism and Resilience: Ancient Wisdom for Modern Life
• Deciphering the Notion of “Tabula Rasa” in Locke’s Philosophy
• Dialectical Materialism: The Backbone of Marxist Philosophy
• Heidegger’s “Being and Time”: A Deep-Dive Into Existential Analysis
• Conceptualizing the “Simulated Reality” Hypothesis From a Philosophical Perspective
• Philosophical Implications of Quantum Physics: Bridging the Gap
• Utilitarianism vs. Deontology: An Ethical Debate
• Contributions of Indian Philosophy to Global Philosophical Discourse
• Philosophical Roots of Feminist Theory
• Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics: Relevance in Modern Society
• Philosophy of Language: Wittgenstein’s Revolutionary Viewpoint
• Re-Examining Solipsism in the Digital Age
• The Notion of “Free Will”: Philosophical Perspectives
• Descartes’ Meditations: Rationalism and Skepticism
• Spinoza and Pantheism: An Intriguing Relation
• Causality and Hume: Breaking Down Empiricism
• The Role of Suffering in Buddhist Philosophy
• The Paradox of Time Travel: A Philosophical Enquiry

Easy Philosophy Topics

• Epicurus on Pleasure: Hedonism Redefined
• The “Butterfly Effect” Concept: Philosophical Underpinnings
• Schopenhauer’s Pessimism: Understanding the Philosophy of Suffering
• Transcendental Idealism: Unpacking Kant’s Epistemology
• Philosophical Investigations Into the Nature of Consciousness
• Probing Into the Ethics of Cloning: A Philosophical Examination
• Postmodernist Views on Objective Reality: A Critical Evaluation
• Analyzing Ethical Egoism: An Inquiry Into Self-Interest
• Ayn Rand’s Objectivism: A Philosophical Analysis
• The Concept of “The Other” in Existential Philosophy
• Philosophical Assumptions in Freud’s Theory of Psychoanalysis
• Taoist Philosophy and Its Relevance to Sustainable Living
• Rethinking the Philosophy of Death: Perspectives on Mortality
• Philosophy of Mathematics: Beyond Numbers and Equations
• Metaphysical Debates Surrounding the Existence of God
• Interpreting the Principle of “Ma” in Japanese Aesthetics
• Philosophical Perspectives on the Dichotomy of Good and Evil
• Assessing the Phenomenological Approach in Philosophy
• Heraclitus’ Philosophy of Change: A Dynamic View of Reality
• The Mind-Body Problem: Insights From Dualism and Monism
• Evaluating Zeno’s Paradoxes: A Philosophical Perspective
• The Notion of Justice in Rawls’ Theory of Fairness
• Pyrrhonian Skepticism: An Examination of Radical Doubt
• Impacts of Existential Crisis on Human Behavior: A Philosophical Investigation

Interesting Philosophy Paper Topics

• Rousseau and the “Noble Savage”: Revisiting Romanticism in Philosophy
• Debating the Ethics of War: A Philosophical Approach
• The Perception of Reality in Hindu Philosophy: Maya and Brahman
• Analyzing the Philosophy of Crime and Punishment: Dostoevsky’s Perspective
• The Golden Mean: Aristotle’s Take on Balance and Moderation
• Philosopher Kings: Plato’s Vision of Ideal Rulership
• A Deeper Look Into the Philosophy of Stoic Joy
• Exploring the Boundaries of Human Knowledge: An Epistemological Enquiry
• The Socratic Method: Its Philosophical Foundations and Educational Implications
• Understanding the Notion of “The Absurd” in Camus’ Works
• Critical Examination of Hobbes’ “State of Nature”
• Kierkegaard’s Leap of Faith: A Philosophical Analysis
• Transhumanism and Its Philosophical Implications: A Critical Study
• Philosophy of Art: Aesthetic Theory and Practice
• Evaluating the Existentialism of Nietzsche’s “Ubermensch”
• Jung’s Archetypes: Unveiling the Philosophical Underpinnings
• Moral Obligations Towards Future Generations: A Philosophical Perspective
• Zen Buddhism: Its Philosophy and Influence on Eastern Thought
• Philosophical Perspectives on Human Rights: Defining Dignity and Freedom
• Confucius’ Philosophy of Harmony: Relevance in Contemporary Society
• The Evolution of Social Contract Theory: From Hobbes to Rawls
• Tracing the Evolution of Moral Relativism in Philosophy
• The Philosophical Aspects of Happiness: A Comparative Study
• Platonic Love: Its Philosophical Underpinnings and Influence on Western Thought

Argumentative Philosophy Topics

• Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Modern Ethics
• Death Penalty: Deterrent for Crime or Infringement on Rights?
• Free Will vs. Determinism: Influence on Human Behavior
• Assisted Suicide: Compassionate Choice or Ethical Misstep?
• Objectivity in History: Fact or Interpretation?
• Truth of Absolutism: Unwavering Certainty or Egotistical Illusion?
• Validity of Censorship in Safeguarding Public Morality
• Role of Religion: Source of Morality or Cause of Conflict?
• Virtue Ethics: Ideal Moral Compass or Unrealistic Standard?
• Merit of Utilitarianism in Policy-Making Decisions
• Ethical Implications of Genetic Engineering in Humans
• Vegetarianism: Moral Obligation or Personal Preference?
• Pacifism: Cowardice or Bravery in the Face of Conflict?
• Cultural Relativism: Respect for Diversity or Excuse for Human Rights Violations?
• Existentialism: Path to Authenticity or Descent into Nihilism?
• Intellectual Property: Protection of Creativity or Hindrance to Progress?
• Aesthetic Judgements: Subjective Preference or Objective Criteria?
• Human Nature: Innately Good or Inherently Evil?
• Moral Responsibility of Multinational Corporations in Developing Countries
• Ethical Dimensions of Universal Basic Income
• Privacy in Digital Age: Fundamental Right or Sacrifice for Security?

Philosophy Proposal Essay Topics

• Exploration of Ethical Implications Surrounding Genetic Engineering
• Unveiling Truth: An Investigation Into Epistemological Theories
• Analyzing Moral Dilemmas: A Deep Dive Into Kantian Ethics
• Perspectives on Existentialism: Influences and Repercussions
• Rationality vs. Emotion: A Comparative Study in Decision-Making
• Dialectics of Master and Slave: Hegelian Theory Revisited
• Nature of Reality: Examination of Metaphysical Concepts
• Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics: Relevance in Contemporary Society
• Buddhist Philosophy and Its Impact on Modern Mindfulness Practices
• Nietzsche’s “Übermensch”: Interpretation and Implications for Modern Man
• Empathy’s Role in Ethical Decision-Making: A Philosophical Perspective
• Aesthetic Judgement: Kant’s Analysis in the Modern Context
• Phenomenology’s Evolution: Sartre and Husserl Comparative Analysis
• Postmodern Deconstruction: Derrida’s Influence on Contemporary Thought
• Quantum Mechanics and Philosophy: Revisiting Determinism and Indeterminism
• Platonist Views on Love: An In-Depth Review
• Mysticism and Rationalism: Contrasting Views on Human Experience
• Panpsychism Reconsidered: Consciousness in the Universe
• Multiverse Theory: Philosophical Discussions and Considerations
• Nihilism in the 21st Century: An Evaluative Study

Philosophy Research Paper Topics

• Ethical Conundrums of Genetic Engineering: A Philosophical Analysis
• Unraveling Hegel’s Dialectics: The Synthesis of Thesis and Antithesis
• Tracing the Origin and Development of Libertarianism
• Environmental Ethics: Gaia Theory and Deep Ecology
• The Trolley Problem: A Philosophical Conundrum
• Examining “The Myth of Progress” From a Philosophical Lens
• The Philosophical Basis of Humanism: Secular and Religious Perspectives
• The Enigma of Time in Philosophy: Exploring Different Theories
• The Moral Dimension of Veganism: A Philosophical Exploration
• Materialism vs. Idealism: An Enduring Philosophical Debate
• The Philosophy of Music: From Pythagoras to Nietzsche
• Understanding the Philosophy of Education: Teaching and Learning Deconstructed
• The Role of Doubt in Philosophy: A Discourse on Skepticism
• Insights Into the Philosophy of Love: From Plato to Fromm
• Unpacking the Concept of “Collective Consciousness” in Durkheim’s Works
• Revisiting “The Allegory of the Sun” in Plato’s Republic
• A Phenomenological Approach to Perception: Merleau-Ponty’s Perspective
• Philosophical Implications of the Multiverse Theory: An Analysis
• Exploring the Concept of Karma in Indian Philosophy
• Philosophy of Space and Time: Unveiling the Mysteries

Comparative Philosophy Essay Topics

• Exploring the Distinctions Between Eastern and Western Concepts of Justice
• Contrasting Confucianism and Platonism: Ethics and Education
• Buddhism vs. Stoicism: A Comparative Study of Approaches to Suffering
• Existentialism in West versus Absurdism in East: Differing Views on Meaning of Life
• A Comparative Analysis of Aristotle’s and Confucius’s Views on Friendship
• The Role of Intuition in Eastern Mysticism and Western Rationalism
• Daoism and Epicureanism: Different Paths to Tranquility
• Relevance of Kant’s Categorical Imperative in the Context of Buddhist Ethics
• The Influence of Taoist Philosophy on Western Environmental Ethics
• A Comparative Study: Greek Hedonism and Indian Philosophy of Ananda
• Comparative Evaluation of Duty in Kantian Ethics and Dharma in Hindu Philosophy
• Parallel Themes in Zoroastrianism and Platonism: A Comparative Analysis
• Comparative Examination of Eastern and Western Perspectives on Forgiveness
• Kierkegaard’s Leap of Faith and Zen Buddhism’s Sudden Enlightenment: A Comparative Study
• A Comparative Analysis of Schopenhauer’s Will and Buddhism’s Desire
• Comparing Hindu Karma and Aristotelian Virtue Ethics: A Study of Moral Responsibility
• Nietzsche’s Eternal Recurrence and the Buddhist Notion of Samsara: A Comparative Analysis
• Analyzing the Differences in Hegelian and Taoist Dialectics
• Examining Sufism and Christian Mysticism: Comparative Analysis of Divine Love
• Understanding Free Will: A Comparative Study Between Sartre’s Existentialism and Islamic Determinism

Practical Philosophical Topics for Philosophy Essays

• Altruism vs. Egoism: Which Guides Humanity?
• Happiness Pursuit: The Role of Virtue Ethics
• Consequentialism and Its Impact on Decision-Making Processes
• Existentialism: Understanding Our Purpose and Meaning
• Justice Examination: Balancing Equality and Fairness
• Animal Rights: Ethical Obligations Towards Non-Human Creatures
• Perception of Reality: An Analysis of Solipsism
• Morality Origin: Divine Command Theory or Secular Humanism?
• Feminist Philosophy: Promoting Gender Equality and Justice
• Dilemmas in Bioethics: Dealing With Life and Death Decisions
• Vegetarianism Advocacy: A Case of Moral Obligation
• Capital Punishment: Weighing Retribution Against Rehabilitation
• Personal Identity: Analyzing Persistence Over Time
• War Ethics: Deciphering Justified Conflict
• Environmental Ethics: Our Responsibility Toward Nature
• Kant’s Imperative: Its Application in Modern Ethics
• Stoicism Influence: Practical Philosophy for Modern Living
• Political Philosophy: Understanding Social Contract Theory
• Business Ethics: Corporate Responsibility and Stakeholder Theory
• Utilitarianism: Critiquing Its Feasibility as a Moral Framework
• Metaphysics of Mind: Analyzing Dualism vs. Physicalism

Philosophy Essay Questions

• How Does Plato’s Theory of Forms Influence Modern Philosophy?
• What Are the Ethical Dimensions of Nietzsche’s “Will to Power”?
• In What Ways Does Kant’s Transcendental Idealism Contribute to Epistemology?
• How Does Existentialism Manifest in Kierkegaard’s Philosophical Writings?
• Which Holds Greater Influence: Empiricism or Rationalism?
• What Role Does Phenomenology Play in Husserl’s Thought?
• Can Derrida’s “Of Grammatology” Be Deconstructed?
• How Can Philosophical Perspectives Shed Light on Artificial Intelligence Ethics?
• What Are the Philosophical Implications of Quantum Physics?
• How Does Epicurus’ Philosophy Contribute to the Art of Happiness?
• How Does Camus’ Concept of the Absurd Explore the Search for Meaning?
• How Does Hegel’s Dialectic Theory Influence His Phenomenology of Spirit?
• What Are Feminist Perspectives Presented in Simone de Beauvoir’s “The Second Sex”?
• How Does Postmodernism Reflect in Baudrillard’s “Simulacra”?
• How Does Leibniz’s Monadology Shape the Metaphysics of His Time?
• Does the Paradox of Free Will Undermine the Concept of Personal Autonomy?
• How Does Popper’s Falsification Theory Reinforce the Philosophy of Science?
• How Has Wittgenstein’s Linguistic Turn Shaped Analytic Philosophy?
• What Insights Does Heraclitus Provide on the Philosophy of Constant Change?
• How Does Sartre’s Phenomenological Ontology Emerge in Being and Nothingness?
• How Does Singer’s Utilitarian Ethics Shape the Argument for Animal Rights?

Aesthetics Philosophy Topics

• Significance of Form in Aesthetic Appreciation
• Relationship Between Aesthetics and Emotion
• Impacts of Culture on Judgments of Beauty
• Evolution of Aesthetic Taste Throughout History
• Aesthetic Philosophy and the Nature of Creativity
• Concept of the Sublime in Aesthetic Experience
• Philosophy of Aesthetics and the Perception of Art
• Roles of Imagination in Aesthetic Appreciation
• Aesthetic Judgment and Criteria for Beauty
• Philosophy of Aesthetic Experience and the Mind-Body Problem
• Aesthetics and the Interpretation of Art
• Connections Between Aesthetics and Ethical Values
• Aesthetic Education and Development of Artistic Taste
• Influence of Technology on Aesthetic Perception
• Authenticity in Art and the Philosophy of Aesthetics
• Aesthetics and the Concept of Artistic Intention
• Temporal Perception in Aesthetic Experience
• Philosophy of Art Restoration and Aesthetic Preservation
• Aesthetic Appreciation of Nature and the Environment
• Aesthetics and the Ethics of Environmental Responsibility
• Philosophy of Architecture and Aesthetic Design
• Aesthetic Pleasure and the Concept of Catharsis

Analytic Philosophy Essay Topics

• The Epistemological Significance of Conceptual Analysis
• Language’s Roles in Analytic Philosophy
• Exploring the Ontological Status of Abstract Objects
• Ethical Considerations in Language and Communication
• The Problematic Nature of Induction in Scientific Reasoning
• Mental States: Identity or Functionalism?
• Unveiling the Metaphysics of Causation and Determinism
• The Logical Structure Underlying Scientific Explanation
• Perception and Sense Data: Epistemological Insights
• Philosophical Perspectives on Mathematics: Platonism vs. Nominalism
• Exploring Consciousness: Physicalism or Dualism?
• The Epistemology of Testimony and Trustworthiness
• Philosophy of Time: Presentism or Eternalism?
• Understanding the Nature of Natural Laws
• Ethical Dimensions of Human Enhancement Technologies
• The Problem of Personal Identity and Continuity
• The Epistemology of Scientific Realism and Anti-Realism
• Philosophy of Language: Referentialism or Pragmatism?
• Analyzing the Concept of Analyticity in Language Philosophy
• Ethics of Animal Rights and Welfare

Ancient Philosophy Essay Topics

• Stoicism and the Pursuit of Apatheia: Examining Emotional Detachment
• Epicurus’ Hedonistic Philosophy and Its Critique of Pleasure
• The Significance of Reason in Seneca the Younger’s Philosophy
• Divine Providence in Stoic Metaphysics: Unraveling Its Meaning
• Pythagorean Ethics: The Interplay of Virtue and Mathematics
• Heraclitus’ Doctrine of Flux: A Paradigm Shift in Ancient Thought
• Pythagorean Philosophy: Exploring the Harmony of Body and Soul
• Aristotle’s Ethics: The Concept of Telos and Human Flourishing
• Parmenides’ Metaphysics and Its Influence on Pre-Socratic Philosophy
• Epictetus on the Integration of Reason and Passion in Moral Development
• Zeno’s Paradoxes: The Philosophy of Paradox in Ancient Greece
• Neoplatonism and the Anima Mundi: Unveiling the Cosmic Soul
• The Aesthetic Dimension in Ancient Greek Philosophical Thought
• Ethics and Politics: The Interconnectedness in Aristotle’s Philosophy
• The Influence of Sophists on Rhetoric and Philosophical Discourse
• The Logos: Stoic and Heraclitean Perspectives on Rationality
• Divine Retribution in Ancient Roman Philosophical Thought
• Skepticism and the Quest for Knowledge: An Ancient Philosophical Inquiry
• Marcus Aurelius: Reason and Virtue in Stoic Philosophy
• Stoicism and Epicureanism: Exploring the Concepts of Fate and Destiny
• The Interplay of Ethics and Metaphysics in Plato’s Philosophy
• Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave”: Political Philosophy and the Quest for Truth

Continental Philosophy Essay Topics

• Metaphysical Foundations of Existentialism
• Phenomenological Analysis of Perception and Reality
• Language and Interpretation in Hermeneutics
• Hegelian Dialectics: Freedom Unveiled
• Merleau-Ponty’s Embodied Phenomenology: Corporeality, Perception, and the World
• Ethics of Care: Feminist Perspective in Continental Philosophy
• Power’s Ontology: Foucault’s Discourse Analysis
• Deconstruction: Critiquing Binary Oppositions
• Emmanuel Levinas: Exploring the Notion of “Otherness”
• Hannah Arendt: Political Philosophy and the Power of Action
• Spirit’s Absolute Nature: Hegelian Philosophy
• Sartre’s Existentialism: Crisis of Meaning
• Heidegger’s Analysis of Being-in-the-World: Authentic Existence
• History’s Roles in Walter Benjamin’s Philosophy
• Bergson’s Philosophy of Duration: Time Unveiled
• Ethics of Alterity: Julia Kristeva’s Perspective
• Phenomenology of Love: Jean-Luc Marion’s Insights
• Alienation: Marx and Adorno’s Conceptual Framework
• Desire’s Philosophy: Gilles Deleuze’s Perspective
• Sublime Aesthetics: Immanuel Kant’s Notions
• Poststructuralist Critique: Challenging Essentialism and Identity

Eastern Philosophy Essay Topics

• Analyzing the Four Noble Truths in Buddhism
• Non-Attachment in Advaita Vedanta: A Transcendent Concept
• The Significance of Mindfulness in Eastern Philosophies
• Eco-Philosophy: Embracing the Way of Nature
• Karma Yoga: Selflessness in Hinduism
• Leadership and Daoism: The Way to Govern
• Exploring the Three Jewels of Buddhism
• The Paradox of Wu: Unveiling Daoist Mysteries
• Impermanence: A Key Tenet in Buddhist Philosophy
• Neo-Confucianism’s Influence on East Asian Societies
• The Bhagavad Gita: Self-Realization through Yoga
• Daoist Alchemy: Inner Transformation and Eternal Life
• Shintoism: Rituals and Their Significance
• Zen Koans: Illuminating Enigmatic Teachings
• Qi: Vital Energy in Traditional Chinese Medicine and Philosophy
• Laozi’s Teachings: Insights From “The Dao De Jing”
• Asceticism: Renunciation in Indian Philosophy
• Yogic Perspectives: Mind, Consciousness, and Beyond
• Tea Ceremony: Harmony and Zen Aesthetics
• Confucianism’s Ethical Teachings in Modern Society

Enlightenment Philosophy Essay Topics

• The Influence of Descartes’ Dualism on Enlightenment Thought
• Voltaire’s Critique of Religious Dogma and Superstition
• Kant’s Concept of Reason and Its Role in Enlightenment Thinking
• Empiricism in Hume’s Philosophy and Its Impact on Enlightenment
• Locke’s Theory of Natural Rights and Its Influence on Enlightenment Politics
• Rousseau’s Social Contract and the Idea of Popular Sovereignty
• The Enlightenment’s Impact on the American Revolution
• Montesquieu’s Theory of Separation of Powers and Its Influence on Modern Governments
• The Feminist Critique of Enlightenment Philosophy
• Diderot’s “Encyclopédie” and the Dissemination of Enlightenment Ideas
• Enlightenment’s Influence on the French Revolution
• Spinoza’s Pantheism and Its Relation to Enlightenment Metaphysics
• Skepticism’s Roles in Enlightenment Philosophy
• The Ethical Implications of Enlightenment Rationalism
• Enlightenment’s Impacts on Education and the Spread of Knowledge
• Critique of Colonialism in Enlightenment Philosophy
• Aesthetics in Enlightenment Thought and Its Significance
• Leibniz’s Monadology and Its Relation to Enlightenment Metaphysics
• Newtonian Physics’ Influence on Enlightenment Philosophy
• Freedom of Speech in Enlightenment Thinking and Its Importance
• The Concept of Happiness in Enlightenment Ethics

Epistemology Philosophy Topics

• The Nature of Knowledge: Exploring Epistemological Foundations
• Rationality and Reasoning: Investigating Logic in Knowledge Attainment
• Inductive Dilemma: Assessing Generalization Validity
• Skepticism and Certainty: Unveiling Limits to Human Understanding
• Empiricism vs. Rationalism: Contrasting Approaches to Epistemology
• Epistemic Relativism: Evaluating Subjectivity in Knowledge
• Warranted Belief: Examining Criteria for Epistemic Justification
• Intellectual Virtues: Identifying Knowledgeable Traits
• Foundationalism vs. Coherentism: Analyzing Knowledge Justification Theories
• Gettier’s Challenge: Critiquing Traditional Knowledge Definition
• Epistemic Authority: Investigating the Role of Experts
• Ethical Dimensions of Knowledge: Exploring Epistemic Responsibility
• Social Epistemology: Understanding Social Factors in Knowledge Acquisition
• Epistemic Norms: Evaluating Standards for Knowledge
• Testimony and Trustworthiness: Assessing Reliability in Second-Hand Knowledge
• Internalism and Externalism: Contrasting Perspectives on Justification
• Reliabilism: Analyzing Cognitive Processes in Knowledge Formation
• A Priori vs. A Posteriori Knowledge: Distinguishing Analytic and Synthetic Truths
• Epistemic Closure Principle: Assessing Knowledge Inference
• Pragmatic Epistemology: Considering Practical Consequences of Beliefs

Existentialism Philosophy Topics

• Existentialist Perspectives on Life’s Purpose
• Freedom and Authenticity in Existentialist Thought
• The Absurdity of Human Existence: An Existential Inquiry
• Existential Anxiety and Dread: Navigating the Uncertainty
• The Existential Crisis: Questioning the Fundamentals of Existence
• Reflecting on the Nature of Being in Existentialist Philosophy
• God and Existentialism: Exploring the Existential Dimension
• Mortality and Existentialism: Reflections on Life and Death
• Individualism and Authenticity in Existentialist Ideology
• Ethical Dilemmas and Freedom of Choice in Existentialism
• Human Condition: An Existentialist Perspective
• The Existential Hero: Embracing Freedom and Responsibility
• Existential Angst: Navigating the Depths of Existence
• The Search for Meaning: Existentialism and the Void
• The Quest for Authenticity in an Existentialist Framework
• Phenomenology of Existence: Exploring the Essence of Being
• Embracing Uncertainty: Existentialism and the Unknown
• Personal Fulfillment: Existentialist Insights and Perspectives
• The Paradox of Freedom: Choices and Limitations in Existentialism
• Existential Responsibility: The Weight of Our Choices
• Rejecting Objective Morality: Existentialist Perspectives

Feminist Philosophy Essay Topics

• Intersectional Feminism: Exploring the Interconnected Struggles of Gender, Race, and Class
• Agency and Autonomy: Reconceptualizing Women’s Empowerment in Feminist Thought
• Ethics of Care: Rethinking Relationships and Responsibilities in Feminist Philosophy
• Embodiment and Subjectivity: The Role of the Female Body in Feminist Philosophy
• Epistemology of Gender: Challenging Male-Centered Knowledge Systems
• Gender and Power: Analyzing Patriarchy’s Impact on Women’s Lives
• Feminist Perspectives on Sexuality and Desire: Embracing Pleasure and Liberation
• Reproductive Justice: Examining Women’s Rights Over Their Bodies and Reproduction
• Environmental Feminism: Valuing Women’s Contributions to Sustainability
• Language and Gender: Deconstructing Gendered Discourse and Linguistic Norms
• Capitalism and Feminism: Unveiling Gendered Exploitation and Economic Inequalities
• Sexual Violence and Consent: Reshaping Consent Culture in Feminist Philosophy
• Feminist Ethics in Healthcare: Redefining Medical Decision-Making
• Feminist Philosophy of Science: Challenging Biases in Scientific Research
• Gender Identity and Transgender Rights: Recognizing Diverse Experiences
• Feminist Perspectives on Marriage and Family: Reimagining Relationships and Roles
• Feminist Pedagogy: Transforming Education to Empower Women
• Body Politics: Exploring Appearance and Beauty Standards in Feminist Philosophy
• Feminist Perspectives on Globalization: Analyzing Neoliberal Policies’ Impact on Women
• Feminist Approaches to Political Theory: Reconceptualizing Power and Democracy

Metaphysics Philosophy Topics

• The Essence of Reality: Unveiling the Fundamentals of Existence
• Consciousness and Its Role in Metaphysics: Exploring the Mystery
• Causality and Determinism: Investigating the Link Between Cause and Effect
• Metaphysical Dualism: Examining the Mind-Body Connection
• Free Will and Determinism: Reconciling Human Choice With Universal Laws
• Ontological Arguments for the Existence of God: Unraveling Deity’s Nature
• The Problem of Evil: Addressing Suffering in a Perfect World
• Time and Temporality: Delving Into the Nature of Chronology
• Personal Identity and the Self: Defining Being’s Essence
• Metaphysics of Space: Exploring Universe’s Dimensions and Boundaries
• The Nature of Knowledge: Epistemological Considerations in Metaphysics
• Essentialism and Nominalism: Debating Universals’ Nature
• Teleological Arguments for God’s Existence: Examining Design in the Universe
• Metaphysics of Morality: Investigating Ethical Principles’ Foundation
• Substance and Attribute: Understanding Objects’ Fundamental Properties
• Identity and Individuation: Exploring Criteria for Personal Distinction
• Metaphysics of Language: Analyzing Words’ Relationship With Reality
• Idealism and Realism: Examining Diverse Views on the World’s Nature
• Metaphysical Paradoxes: Investigating Logical Inconsistencies in Reality
• The Problem of Induction: Evaluating Generalized Knowledge’s Validity
• Theories of Universals: Debating Abstract Concepts’ Existence

Modern Philosophy Essay Topics

• Ethical Implications of Technological Advancements
• Epistemological Challenges in the Digital Era
• Consciousness and Selfhood in Contemporary Metaphysics
• Impacts of Postmodernism on Art and Aesthetics
• Existentialist Perspectives on Freedom and Responsibility
• Power Dynamics and Oppression in Critical Theory
• Feminist Philosophy: Embodiment and Phenomenology
• Ethics in the Era of Artificial Intelligence
• Consumer Culture: The Paradox of Choice
• The Intersection of Philosophy and Science in the Mind
• Language, Communication, and Analytic Philosophy
• Environmental Ethics in the Anthropocene Era
• Exploring Evil: Contemporary Philosophy of Religion
• Temporal Concepts in Contemporary Metaphysics
• Cultural Diversity and Moral Relativism
• Animal Rights: Ethics and Contemporary Philosophy
• Transhumanism: Technology and Human Flourishing
• Quantum Philosophy: Understanding Reality
• Social Contract Theory and Political Legitimacy
• Philosophy of Education in a Globalized Context

Phenomenology Philosophy Topics

• Human Consciousness and the Lived Experience
• Intentionality in Phenomenological Analysis
• Embodiment and the Phenomenology of Perception
• Temporality and the Experience of Time in Phenomenology
• Social Interactions and Intersubjectivity in the Phenomenological Context
• Phenomenology of the Other: Encounter With Alterity
• Emotions and Their Role in Phenomenological Investigation
• Authenticity: Exploring the Phenomenology of Being
• Place and Space: Phenomenological Perspectives
• Selfhood and the Phenomenology of Identity
• Existential Inquiry: Unveiling Meaning Through Phenomenology
• Embodied Mind: Phenomenological Reflections on the Body-Mind Relationship
• Art and Aesthetics: Phenomenological Engagement
• Temporality: The Structuring Principle of Consciousness in Phenomenology
• Language and Its Significance in Phenomenological Discourse
• Ethics of Care: Phenomenological Considerations
• Objectivity and Intentionality in Phenomenology
• Perception and Its Role in Phenomenological Inquiry
• Technology and Its Impact on Phenomenological Reflection
• Lifeworld: Foundation of Phenomenology

Philosophy Ethics Topics

• Freedom, Responsibility, and Existential Ethical Inquiry
• Ethical Dilemmas in Medical Decision-Making
• Feminist Ethics: Gender, Equality, and Justice
• Moral Relativism and Cultural Diversity
• Capital Punishment: An Ethical Assessment
• Ethical Considerations in Artificial Reproduction
• Implications of Human Cloning: An Ethical Examination
• Ethics of War and Justifications for Violence
• Ethical Issues in Biomedical Research
• Ethical Dimensions of Privacy and Surveillance
• Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide: Ethical Perspectives
• Moral Realism vs. Subjectivism: A Philosophical Debate
• Ethical Challenges in Globalization and Trade
• Corporate Ethics: Responsibilities and Accountability
• Resource Allocation in Healthcare: Ethical Considerations
• Ethical Questions in Genetic Privacy and DNA Analysis
• Obligations Toward Future Generations: An Ethical Inquiry
• Artificial Intelligence in Warfare: Ethical Implications
• Criminal Justice Ethics: Balancing Punishment and Rehabilitation
• Ethical Considerations in Organ Transplantation
• Human Enhancement and Transhumanism: Ethical Perspectives

Philosophy of Education Essay Topics

• The Role of Ethics in Educational Practices: Cultivating Moral Responsibility
• Examining the Influence of Technology on Teaching and Learning: Enhancing Educational Approaches
• Philosophy of Inclusion: Embracing Diversity Within Educational Settings
• Constructivism and Its Impact on Education: Fostering Active Knowledge Construction
• The Importance of Critical Thinking in Educational Environments: Nurturing Analytical Minds
• Play-Based Learning in Early Childhood Education: Promoting Holistic Development
• Examining the Purpose of Education: Cultivating Lifelong Learners
• Ethics of Standardized Assessment: Balancing Accountability and Student Well-Being
• Existentialism in Education: Nurturing Authenticity and Personal Freedom
• The Significance of Emotional Intelligence in Educational Contexts: Fostering Social and Emotional Learning
• Promoting Creativity in Education: Unlocking the Potential of Imagination
• Exploring Cultural Education: Celebrating Diversity and Promoting Intercultural Understanding
• Examining Progressivism in Education: A Student-Centered Approach
• The Importance of Education for Sustainable Development: Fostering Environmental Responsibility
• Addressing Gender Equity in Education: Promoting Equality and Inclusivity
• Perennialism in Education: Cultivating Enduring Knowledge and Universal Truths
• Ethical Considerations in Classroom Management: Balancing Discipline and Empathy
• Philosophy’s Roles in Teacher Education: Shaping Educators’ Perspectives and Practices
• The Influence of Socioeconomic Factors on Education: Addressing Educational Disparities
• Philosophy of Epistemology in Education: Examining the Nature of Knowledge Acquisition

Philosophy of Language Topics

• Linguistic Constructs: Exploring the Role of Language in Shaping Reality
• Verbal Determinism: Examining the Influence of Language on Thought
• Expressive Boundaries: Unraveling the Ineffability of Linguistic Expression
• Intentional Communication: Understanding Meaning in Verbal Acts
• Referential Dynamics: Investigating the Relationship Between Words and the World
• Social Significance: Analyzing Power Dynamics in Linguistic Interactions
• Semantics and Truth: Exploring the Correspondence Between Language and Reality
• Contextual Meaning: Examining Pragmatics in Language Usage
• Language Acquisition: Unveiling the Process of Learning and Acquiring Verbal Skills
• The Challenge of Indeterminacy: Exploring Ambiguity and Vagueness in Language
• Figurative Language: Analyzing Metaphors and Metonymy in Linguistic Representation
• Linguistic Influence on Identity: Investigating Language’s Impact on Personal and Cultural Identities
• The Nature of Naming: Understanding the Significance of Lexical Representation
• Theories of Referentiality: Comparing Descriptive, Causal, and Direct Reference
• Linguistic Relativity Debate: Examining the Influence of Language on Thought and Perception
• Evolutionary Aspects of Language: Tracing the Origins and Development of Human Communication
• Meaning in Interpretation: Exploring Context, Intention, and Understanding
• Language and Power Structures: Investigating the Relationship between Linguistics and Social Hierarchies
• Translation Challenges: Unraveling the Philosophical Implications of Language Transfer
• Cognitive Representations: Examining the Connection Between Language and Thought
• Logical Structures: Analyzing the Formalism of Language and Reasoning
• Language and Technological Influence: Exploring the Impact of Digital Communication on Linguistic Practices

Philosophy of Law Essay Topics

• Ethical Dilemmas in Legal Punishment
• Reasoning and Decision-Making in Legal Systems
• Metaphysics of Rights and Legal Personhood
• Intersection of Morality and Legal Enforcement
• Epistemological Foundations of Legal Systems
• Ontological Status of Legal Norms and Obligations
• Concept of Justice in Legal Theory
• Hermeneutics of Legal Texts and Interpretation
• Relationship Between Law and Social Change
• Teleology of Legal Institutions and Systems
• Deontological Perspective on Legal Ethics
• Aesthetics of Law and Legal Systems
• Pragmatism in Legal Positivism
• Roles of Equality in Legal Rights and Obligations
• Existential Dimensions of Legal Responsibility
• Dialectics of Individual Liberty and Legal Constraints
• Precedents and Case Law: Hermeneutics and Interpretation
• Phenomenology of Legal Authority and Obedience
• Ethics of Civil Disobedience and Legal Reform
• Epistemological Challenges of Legal Realism

Philosophy of Mind Topics

• The Conceptualization of Consciousness: Exploring Self-Awareness Phenomena
• Dualism and Materialism: Examining Mind-Body Relationship Nature
• Embodied Cognition: Understanding Role of Body in Cognitive Processes
• Free Will and Determinism: Investigating Boundaries of Human Agency
• The Problem of Other Minds: Unveiling Understanding of Mental States in Others
• Intentionality and Mental Representation: Unraveling Nature of Cognitive Content
• Personal Identity: Analyzing Self-Continuity Over Time
• The Nature of Qualia: Discussing Subjective Experience of Sensations
• Artificial Intelligence and Consciousness: Exploring Potential Machine Sentience
• Epistemological Challenges of Perception: Examining Reliability of Senses
• Mental Causation: Investigating the Relationship Between Mental Events and Physical Events
• Panpsychism: Contemplating Mind Presence in All Things
• Reductionism and Emergence: Analyzing Explanation Levels in Mind-Body Problem
• Consciousness and Brain Activity: Linking Neural Processes to Subjective Experience
• Philosophy of Memory: Understanding the Nature of Remembering
• The Problem of Induction: Examining Justification for Generalizing From Experience
• The Nature of Belief: Investigating Epistemology of Mental States
• Philosophy of Emotion: Exploring Subjective Experience of Feelings
• Philosophy of Language: Analyzing the Relationship Between Language and Thought
• Introspection and Self-Knowledge: Reflecting on Inner Experience Nature
• Mental Imagery and Perception: Examining Role of Mental Images in Cognition

Philosophy of Religion Essay Topics

• The Existence of God: A Critical Examination
• The Problem of Evil: Reconciling Divine Omnipotence and the Presence of Suffering
• Religious Pluralism: Is There One Ultimate Faith?
• The Teleological Argument: Investigating Design and Purpose in the Cosmos
• The Cosmological Argument: Exploring the Origin of the Universe
• The Ontological Argument: Examining the Concept of a Necessary Existence
• Faith and Reason: Coexistence or Conflict?
• Mystical Encounters: Understanding the Significance of Spiritual Experiences
• The Euthyphro Dilemma: Does Morality Depend on Divine Commands?
• Divine Hiddenness: Why Does God Not Reveal Himself Universally?
• Supernatural Interventions: Exploring Miraculous Events
• Divine Foreknowledge and Human Free Will: A Philosophical Inquiry
• Religious Language: Expressing the Ineffable?
• Soul and Personal Identity: Investigating Immortality and the Self
• Theodicy: Justifying God’s Actions in the Face of Evil
• Religion and Science: Navigating the Relationship Between Two Ways of Knowing
• Pascal’s Wager: Rationality in Belief
• Ineffability: The Challenge of Describing the Divine
• Afterlife Beliefs: Exploring Concepts of Existence Beyond Death
• Divine Sovereignty and Human Freedom: A Paradoxical Connection

Philosophy of Science Essay Topics

• The Epistemological Significance of Experimentation in Scientific Inquiry
• The Role of Induction in Scientific Theory Formation
• Metaphysical Implications of Quantum Mechanics
• Ethical Considerations in Scientific Research
• The Nature of Causality in Scientific Explanations
• Time’s Concept in Philosophy of Science
• Observation-Theory Relationship in Scientific Practice
• Social Dimensions of Scientific Knowledge Production
• Underdetermination Problem in Scientific Theories
• Mathematics’ Roles in Scientific Understanding
• Exploring Life and Its Fundamental Principles in Philosophy of Biology
• Objectivity’s Concept in Scientific Inquiry
• Falsification Methodology in Science
• Models and Simulations in Scientific Explanation
• Space’s Philosophy: Examining the Nature of Physical Reality
• Epistemological Status of Scientific Laws
• Explanation’s Concept in Science
• Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Science
• Philosophy of Neuroscience: Understanding Mind and Brain
• Rationality in Scientific Reasoning
• Emergence Concept in Complex Systems Science

Plato Philosophy Essay Topics

• Metaphysical Concepts in Plato’s Philosophy
• Forms and Their Role in Plato’s Theory of Ideas
• Epistemological Foundations: Understanding Plato’s Philosophy
• Ethical Implications: Exploring Plato’s Allegory of the Cave
• Political Idealism: Plato’s Vision in the Republic
• Recollection and Knowledge: Unraveling Plato’s Theory
• The Philosopher-King Concept: Plato’s Ideal Ruler
• Reason and Knowledge: Key Elements in Plato’s Philosophy
• Dialectic Method: Examining Plato’s Dialogues
• Education in Plato’s Philosophy: Unlocking the Mind
• Justice: Plato’s Concept in the Republic
• The Dualistic Nature of the Soul: Plato’s Unique Perspective
• Love’s Philosophy: Analyzing Plato’s Symposium
• Immortality of the Soul: Plato’s View in the Phaedrus
• Beauty’s Essence: Plato’s Philosophical Reflection
• Poetry’s Significance: Exploring Plato’s Republic
• Critique of Democracy: Plato’s Examination of Governance
• Body and Soul Relationship: Plato’s Intriguing Connection
• Mathematics: Plato’s Philosophical Exploration
• Virtue’s Essence: Unpacking Plato’s Ethics

Political Philosophy Essay Topics

• The Role of Democracy in Modern Governance
• Ethical Implications of Political Authority
• Justice and Equality in Political Systems
• Examining the Nature of Political Obligation
• Conceptualizing Freedom in Political Philosophy
• Ethics Surrounding Political Violence
• The Interplay of Ethics and Politics
• State’s Responsibility in Safeguarding Individual Rights
• Justifying Political Authority Legitimacy
• Ethical Challenges in Political Campaigning
• Civil Disobedience as a Democratic Instrument
• Consent as the Basis of Political Legitimacy
• Ethics of Promoting Political Correctness
• Political Philosophy’s Roles in Policy Formation
• Balancing State Intervention in Economic Affairs
• Significance of Political Ideologies in Contemporary Politics
• Moral Foundations of Social Welfare Programs
• Moral Dilemma of Political Power
• Ethics in Global Political Governance
• Educational Influence on Political Philosophy
• Linking Political Stability to Economic Development

Postmodern Philosophy Essay Topics

• Deconstruction and Its Impact on Language
• The Influence of Postmodernism on Contemporary Art
• Identity Construction in the Postmodern Era
• Epistemological Challenges in Postmodern Philosophy
• Postmodern Ethics and the Question of Moral Relativism
• The Role of Power in Postmodern Political Thought
• Postmodernism and the Crisis of Metanarratives
• Language Games and Meaning in Postmodern Philosophy
• The Rejection of Objectivity in Postmodern Thought
• The Relationship Between Postmodernism and Postcolonial Theory
• Aesthetics in the Postmodern Era: The Collapse of Beauty Standards
• The Fragmentation of Self in Postmodern Philosophy
• Deconstructing Gender: Postmodern Feminist Perspectives
• Consumer Culture Critique in Postmodern Philosophy
• Enlightenment Dialectics: Postmodern Interpretations
• Challenging Traditional Design Principles: Postmodern Architecture
• Rethinking Authorship in Postmodernism
• The Critique of Modern Science in Postmodern Philosophy
• Postmodernism and Literary Theory: Influence and Implications
• The Crisis of Representation in Postmodern Visual Arts

Transcendentalism Essay Topics in Philosophy

• The Influence of Nature in Transcendentalist Philosophy
• Self-Reliance: A Core Tenet of Transcendentalism
• Intuition’s Roles in Transcendentalist Thought
• Transcendentalist Perspectives on Divinity
• Individualism vs. Society in Transcendentalism
• Transcendentalism’s Quest for Truth
• Imagination’s Significance in Transcendentalist Philosophy
• Nonconformity as an Ethical Principle in Transcendentalism
• Transcendentalism’s Oversoul Concept
• Transcendentalism’s Impacts on American Literature
• Mind-Body Connection in Transcendentalist Philosophy
• Transcendentalism’s Environmental Ethics
• Seeking Spiritual Enlightenment in Transcendentalism
• The Self in Transcendentalist Thought
• Transcendentalism’s Influence on Civil Disobedience
• Transcendentalism’s Embrace of Immediacy
• Transcendentalism’s Critique of Materialism and Consumerism
• Universal Truths in Transcendentalism
• Art and Spirituality in Transcendentalist Philosophy
• Transcendentalism’s Rejection of Traditional Institutions
• Nonviolence as an Ideal in Transcendentalism

Worldview Philosophy Topics

• Metaphysics of Reality: Exploring the Nature of Existence
• Ethical Dilemmas in a Globalized Society
• Technological Advancements: Ethical Implications and Considerations
• Aesthetics: The Philosophy of Art Appreciation
• Epistemology: Foundations of Scientific Inquiry
• Mind-Body Dualism: Understanding the Relationship
• Reason’s Roles in Ethical Decision-Making
• Identity Construction: Gender, Race, and Social Constructs
• Searching for Meaning in an Absurd Universe
• Free Will’s Significance in Human Action
• Environmental Ethics: Conservation and Sustainability
• Ontological Arguments for God’s Existence
• Philosophy of Language: Meaning and Communication
• Political Authority: Justification and Statehood
• The Problem of Evil: Philosophical Reflections
• Epistemology of Perception: The Limits of Knowledge
• Biomedical Research Ethics: Human Experimentation
• Philosophy of History: Understanding the Past’s Significance
• Temporal Metaphysics: Exploring the Nature of Time
• Authenticity and Personal Freedom: An Existentialist Perspective

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Philosophy essay writing guide

Introduction.

This guide is intended to give new students of philosophy some preliminary advice about writing philosophy essays at university. For many of you, writing a philosophy essay will be something of a new experience, and no doubt many of you will be a little unsure of what to expect, or of what is expected of you. Most of you will have written essays in school for English, History, etc. A philosophy essay is something a little different again. However, it is not an unfathomable, mysterious affair, nor one where anything goes.

Just what a philosophy essay is will depend a lot, as you'd expect, on just what philosophy is. Defining philosophy is always a more or less controversial business, but one way to think of what is done in university philosophy departments is to think of the difference between having a philosophy and doing philosophy. Virtually everyone "has a philosophy" in the sense that we have many basic beliefs about the world and ourselves and use certain key concepts to articulate those beliefs. Many of us initially come to thus "have a philosophy" (or elements of several philosophies) often only unconsciously, or by following "what's obvious" or "what everybody knows", or by adopting a view because it sounds exciting or is intellectually fashionable.

"Doing philosophy", on the other hand, is a self-conscious unearthing and rigorous examination of these basic beliefs and key concepts. In doing so, we try to clarify the meanings of those beliefs and concepts and to evaluate critically their rational grounds or justification. Thus, rather than having their heads in the clouds, philosophers are really more under the surface of our thinking, examining the structures that support - or fail to support - those who trust that they have their feet on the ground. Such examination may even help to develop new and firmer ground.

Doing philosophy, then, begins with asking questions about the fundamental ideas and concepts that inform our ways of looking at the world and ourselves, and proceeds by developing responses to those questions which seek to gain insight into those ideas and concepts - and part of that development consists in asking further questions, giving further responses, and so on. Human beings across the world have been engaged in this sort of dialogue of question and response for many centuries - even millennia - and a number of great traditions of reflection and inquiry have evolved that have fundamentally influenced the development of religion, art, science and politics in many cultures. The influence of philosophical thinking on Western civilization, in particular, can be traced back more than 2,500 years to the Ancient Greeks.

In philosophy, a good essay is one that, among other things, displays a good sense of this dialectic of question and response by asking insightful, probing questions, and providing reasoned, well-argued responses. This means that you should not rest content with merely an unintegrated collection of assertions, but should instead work at establishing logical relations between your thoughts. You are assessed not on the basis of what you believe, but on how well you argue for the position you adopt in your essay, and on how interesting and insightful your discussion of the issues is. That is to say, you are assessed on how well you do philosophy, not on what philosophy you end up having. Nonetheless, you ought to make sure that your essay's discussion is relevant to the topic. (See Section 5.2 below on relevance.)

It is hoped that you enjoy the activity of essay writing. If you have chosen to study Arts, it is likely that you will have a particular interest in - even a passion for - ideas and the variety of forms and genres in which ideas are expressed and explored. The argumentative or discursive formal academic essay is one such form, and one which can be a pleasure to read and to write. Thus, the assessment that is set in philosophy courses is primarily an invitation to you to pursue what is already (or, hopefully, soon to be) your own interest in writing to explore ideas. However, your immediate goal in writing an academic philosophy essay ought not to be to write a personal testament, confession or polemic. Rather, you should primarily aim at articulating, clearly and relatively dispassionately, your philosophical thinking on the topic at hand. Nevertheless, the kind and degree of personal development one can gain from taking up the challenge to think and to write carefully, clearly and thoroughly is certainly something to be greatly valued.

This guide is intended to help you get started in the business of writing philosophy essays. As you practise your philosophical writing skills, you will develop your own technique, and learn what is appropriate in each particular case. So you may well come to "work around" many of these guidelines. Nonetheless, it is important that you pass through that which you seek to pass beyond.* In addition to your own writing, your reading of other philosophers will help you to develop your sense of what constitutes good philosophical writing. As you read, note the various styles and techniques that philosophical authors employ in their treatment of philosophical issues. Practice and studying good examples, then, are the most valuable ways to develop your essay writing skills.

This guide is, moreover, only one of many publications that introduce philosophy students to essay writing. Some others you may like to consult include:

• A. P. Martinich, Philosophical Writing, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997)
• J. Feinberg and R. Shafer-Landau, Doing Philosophy: A Guide to the Writing of Philosophy Papers, 2nd ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2001)
• Z. Seech, Writing Philosophy Papers, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2003)
• R. Solomon, "Writing Philosophy", Appendix to his The Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy, 6th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2001)
• S. Gorovitz et al., Philosophical Analysis: An Introduction to its Language and Techniques, 3rd ed. (New York: Random House, 1979)

Also, the websites of many philosophy departments in universities around Australia and the world contain downloadable essay writing guides or links to them.

*This phrase is adapted from Jacques Bouveresse, "Why I am so very unFrench", in Alan Montefiore, ed., Philosophy in France Today (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 12.

What do I do in a Philosophy essay?

Philosophy essay topics are not designed to provide an intellectual obstacle course that trips you up so as to delight a malicious marker. They are designed to invite you to "grapple with" with some particular philosophical problem or issue. That is to say, they are designed to offer you an opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of a particular philosophical problem or issue, and to exhibit your own philosophical skills of analysis, argumentation, etc. These twin goals are usually best achieved by ensuring that your essay performs two basic functions (your understanding and your skills apply to both):

an exposition of the problem or issue in question (often as it is posed in some particular text); and a critical discussion of the problem or text

These two functions can, but need not always, correspond to physically or structurally distinct sections of your essay. See Section 5.1.

The expository ("setting forth") aspect of your essay is where you should make clear what the issue is and why it is an issue. Where you are dealing with an issue as it is presented in some particular text, your aim should be to make clear what it is that the author in question meant in their text, what they see as the issue and why they see it as an issue. This does not involve merely quoting or paraphrasing a text. Of course, occasional quotation and paraphrase may be appropriate - sometimes necessary - but these ought not to constitute the sole or major content of your exposition. Where you do quote or paraphrase, make sure you attribute your sources in footnotes or endnotes. (See Section 7.)

Exposition is, then, primarily a matter of developing in your own words what you think the issue is or what you think the text means. In all expository work you should always try to give a fair and accurate account of a text or problem, even when the exposition becomes more interpretive rather than simply descriptive. You ought to be patient and sympathetic in your exposition, even if you intend later to criticise heavily the philosopher in question. Indeed, the better the exposition in this regard, usually the more effective the critique.

An important part of exposition is your analysis of the text or issue. Here you should try to "break down" the text, issue or problem into its constitutive elements by distinguishing its different parts. (E.g. "There are two basic kinds of freedom in question when we speak of freedom of the will. First, … . Second, …", or "There are three elements in Plato's conception of the soul, namely... He establishes these three elements by means of the following two arguments... ") This also involves showing the relationships between those elements, relationships which make them "parts of the whole".

As well as laying out these elements within a text or issue, you can also (when appropriate or relevant) show how a text or issue "connects up with" other texts, issues, or philosophical and/or historical developments, which can help to shed further light on the matter by giving it a broader context. (eg "Freedom of the will is importantly connected to the justification of punishment", or "Plato's tripartite theory of the soul bears interesting resemblances to Freud's analysis of the psyche", or "Kant's transcendental idealism can be seen as reconciling the preceding rationalist and empiricist accounts of knowledge".)

An exposition of a text need not always simply follow the author's own view of what it means. You should, of course, demonstrate that you understand how the author themself understands their work, but an exposition can sometimes go beyond this, giving another reading of the text. (eg "Heidegger might deny it, but his Being and Time can be read as developing a pragmatist account of human understanding.") A given text or issue may well be susceptible to a number of plausible or reasonable interpretations. An exposition should aim to be sensitive to such variety. When appropriate, you should defend your interpretations against rivals and objections. Your interpretation ought, though, to be aimed at elucidating the meaning or meanings of the text or issue and not serve merely as a "coat-hanger" for presenting your own favoured views on the matter in question, which should be left to your ...

Critical discussion

This is where your thought gets more of the centre stage. Here you should attempt to develop a response to the issues which your exposition has made clear, and/or, in the case of a discussion of some particular text, attempt to give a critical appraisal of the author's treatment of the issue. In developing a response to a philosophical problem, argumentation is, again, of central importance. Avoid making unsupported assertions; back up your claims with reasons, and connect up your ideas so that they progress logically toward your conclusions. Consider some of the various objections to and questions about your views that others might or have put forward, and try to respond to them in defence of your own line of thinking. Your goal here should be to discuss what you have expounded so as to come to some conclusion or judgement about it. ("Critical" is derived from the Ancient Greek for "to decide, to judge".) Critical discussion is thus not necessarily "destructive" or "negative"; it can be quite constructive and positive.

In the case of a critical appraisal of a particular author's text, you can negatively criticise the author's arguments by pointing out questionable assumptions, invalid reasoning, etc. If, on the other hand, you think that the text is good, then your critical discussion can be positive. This can be done by revealing its "hidden virtues" (that is, by showing that there is more to the author's arguments and views than what lies on the surface) and/or by defending an author against possible and/or actual criticisms. (eg "Norman Malcolm argues that Descartes is mistaken in assuming that dreams and waking episodes have the same content.* However, Malcolm fails to appreciate the subtlety of Descartes' argument in the First Meditation, which allows Descartes to claim . . .") Just to expound an author's arguments and then say "I disagree" or "That seems right" is not really enough - you need to "have something to say" about it. Of course, by all means go on, after finding fault with some philosopher, to answer in your own way the questions tackled or raised by the author. (eg "Simone de Beauvoir's analysis of women's oppression in The Second Sex suffers from serious weaknesses, as I have shown in Section 2 above. A better way to approach the issue, I shall now argue, is to . . .".)

Where you are not primarily concerned with evaluating or responding to a particular text, your critical discussion can be more focused on your own constructive response to the issue. (eg "Having used Dworkin's account to clarify the meanings of the concepts of 'the sanctity of life' and 'voluntariness', I shall now argue that voluntary euthanasia is morally permissible because its voluntariness respects what is of value in the notion of the sanctity of life" - where you now leave Dworkin behind as a source and move on to give your own account.)

* See Norman Malcolm, "Dreaming and Skepticism", in Willis Doney, ed., Descartes: A Collection of Critical Essays (London: Macmillan, 1967), p. 56.

Guide to researching and writing Philosophy essays

5th edition by Steven Tudor , for the Philosophy program, University of Melbourne, 2003.

This fifth edition of How to Write a Philosophy Essay: A Guide for Students (previous editions titled A Guide to Researching and Writing Philosophy Essays ) was prepared in consultation with members of the Philosophy program, the University of Melbourne. For advice and assistance on this and earlier editions, thanks are due to Graham Priest, Barry Taylor, Christopher Cordner, Doug Adeney, Josie Winther, Linda Burns, Marion Tapper, Kimon Lycos, Brendan Long, Jeremy Moss, Tony Coady, Will Barrett, Brian Scarlett, and Megan Laverty. Some use was also made of materials prepared by the Philosophy Departments of La Trobe University, the University of Queensland, and The Australian National University.

Disclaimer: University, Faculty and program rules

Please note: this booklet does not provide authoritative statements of the official policies or rules of the University of Melbourne, the Faculty of Arts, or the Philosophy program with regard to student essays and examinations or any other matters. Students should, therefore, not rely on this booklet for such information, for which they should consult the various appropriate notice boards, handbooks, websites, and/or members of staff.

Essay topics

What do philosophy essay topics look like? There are, very roughly, two basic kinds of philosophy essay topics: "text-focused" topics and "problem-focused" topics. Text-focused topics ask you to consider some particular philosopher's writing on some issue. (eg "Discuss critically David Hume's account of causation in Part III of Book I of his A Treatise of Human Nature " or "Was Wittgenstein right to say that 'the meaning of a word is its use in the language', in his Philosophical Investigations, Sec. 43?"). Problem-focused topics are more directly about a particular philosophical problem or issue, without reference to any particular philosopher's text. (eg "Is voluntary euthanasia morally permissible?" or "What is scientific method?")

There is another sort of topic, one which presents a statement and asks you to discuss it, where that statement is a "made up" or, at least, unattributed quote. (eg. "'Without belief in God, people cannot be moral'. Discuss.") I shall regard these as variations of the problem-focused type of topic. Where you are asked to discuss some such statement "with reference to" some specified text or philosopher, then that topic becomes more text-focused. (eg "'Without belief in God, people cannot be moral'. Discuss with reference to J.L. Mackie's Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong. ") Occasionally, a topic presents an unattributed statement, but the statement is, in fact, a quote from a particular philosopher you've been studying, or, at least, a good paraphrase of their thinking. (An example of the latter: "'All the ideas in our minds originate from either sense perception or our reflection upon sensory information.' Discuss.", in a course devoted to John Locke, whose views are summed up in the quoted statement, though those words are not actually his.) Should you take such topics as problem- or text-focused? Rather unhelpfully, I'll say only that it depends on the case. You might ask your lecturer or tutor about it. Whichever way you do take it, be clear in your essay which way you are taking it.

The difference between text-focused and problem-focused essay topics is, however, not very radical. This is because, on the one hand, any particular philosopher's text is about some philosophical problem or question, while, on the other hand, most philosophical problems (certainly virtually all those you will be given as essay topics at university) will have been written about by previous philosophers.

The basic way to approach text-focused topics, then, is to treat the nominated text as an attempt by one philosopher to deal with a particular philosophical problem or issue. The essay topic will, generally speaking, be inviting you to do philosophy with that philosopher, to engage with them in thinking about the issue, whether that engagement proves to be as an ally or an adversary. The chosen text will usually be one which has been (or deserves to be) influential or significant in the history of philosophy, but the task is not to pay homage to past masters. But, even if homage is your thing, the best way to do that here is to engage with the master philosophically.

With regard to problem-focused topics, you will often find your exploration of the problem aided by taking some text or texts which have dealt with it as reference points or prompts. This is not always strictly necessary, but many of you starting out in philosophy will find it helpful to do so - it can help you give focus to your response to the question. (Thus, you might, in an essay on the topic "Is voluntary euthanasia morally permissible?" take it upon yourself to use, for example, Ronald Dworkin's Life's Dominion and Peter Singer's Practical Ethics as reference points. Or, in an essay on the topic "What is scientific method?", you might set up your answer via a comparison of the two different accounts in Karl Popper's The Logic of Scientific Discovery and Paul Feyerabend's Against Method.*) How will you know which texts to adopt as reference points or prompts, if none is mentioned in the essay topic itself? One way is to consider what texts have already been mentioned with regard to the topic in your course reading guide and in lectures and tutorials. Another way is to do some of your own research. On this see Section 4 below.

* In this guide, in giving examples of how to go about answering an essay question, I am not necessarily giving any concrete or reliable advice for any particular topic. The examples are primarily to do with the form or style or strategy you might find helpful.

Researching your essay

To do research for your philosophy essay you need to do only two things: read and think. Actually, for problem-focused essays, thinking is the only truly necessary bit, but it's highly likely that you will find your thinking much assisted if you do some reading as well. Philosophical research at university is a little different to research in most other disciplines (especially the natural sciences), in that it is not really about "collecting data" to support or refute explanatory theories. Rather, the thinking that's involved in philosophical research (as part of one's preparation for philosophical writing) is more a matter of reflecting critically upon the problems in front of one. Researching the writings of other philosophers should, therefore, be primarily directed towards helping you with that reflection rather than aiming at gathering together and reporting on "the relevant findings" on a particular topic. In many other disciplines, a "literature review" is an important research skill, and sometimes philosophy academics do such reviews - but it is rare that philosophy students are asked to do one.

What, then, to read? It should be clear from your lectures and tutorials what some starting points for your reading might be. (All courses provide reading guides; many also have booklets of reading material.) Your tutor and lecturer are also available for consultation on what readings you might begin with for any particular topic in that subject. Independent research can also uncover useful sources, and evidence of this in your essay can be a pleasing sign of intellectual independence. Make sure, though, that what you come up with is relevant to the topic. (See Section 5.2 below on relevance.) Whichever way you proceed, your reading should be purposive and selective.

In the case of essay questions that refer to a particular text, you should familiarise yourself thoroughly with this text. Usually, such a text will be a primary text, i.e. one in which a philosopher writes directly about a philosophical issue. Texts on or about a primary text are called secondary texts. (Many philosophical works will combine these two tasks, and discuss other philosophical texts while also dealing directly with a philosophical issue.) Some secondary texts can be helpful to students. However, don't think you will only ever understand a primary text if you have a nice friendly secondary text to take you by the hand through the primary text. More often than not, you need to have a good grasp of the primary text in order to make sense of the secondary text.

How much to read? The amount of reading you do should be that which maximises the quality of your thinking - that is, you should not swamp yourself with vast slabs of text that you can't digest, but nor should you starve your mind of ideas to chew over. There is, of course, no simple rule for determining this optimal amount. Be wary, though, of falling into the vice of looking for excuses not to read some philosopher or text, as in "Oh, that's boring old religious stuff" or "She's one of those obscure literary feminist types", or "In X Department they laugh at you if you mention those authors in tutes". If someone wants a reason not to think, they'll soon come up with one.

Philosophical writings

Most philosophical writings come in either of two forms: books or articles. Articles appear either in books that are edited anthologies or in academic journals, such as Philosophical Quarterly or Australasian Journal of Philosophy. Some academic journals are also on the internet. Most articles in the journals are written by professional philosophers for professional philosophers; similarly with many books. But by no means let this put you off. Everyone begins philosophy at the deep end - it's really the only kind there is!

There are, however, many books written for student audiences. Some of these are general introductions to philosophy as a whole; others are introductions to particular areas or issues (eg biomedical ethics or philosophy of science). Among the general introductions are various philosophical dictionaries, encyclopedias and "companions". These reference works collect short articles on a wide range of topics and can be very useful starting points for newcomers to a topic. Among the most useful of the general reference works are:

• Edward Craig, ed., The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (10 vols.) (London: Routledge, 1998)
• Paul Edwards, ed., The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (8 vols.) (New York: Macmillan, 1967)
• Robert Audi, ed., The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
• Ted Honderich, ed., The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995)
• Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996)
• Thomas Mautner, ed., The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy (London: Penguin, 1998)
• J.O. Urmson and Jonathan Ree, eds., The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy and Philosophers (London: Routledge, 1993)
• Edward N. Zalta, ed., The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (an internet-based reference work: plato.stanford.edu/ )

Note taking

Note taking, like your reading, should not be random, but ought to be guided by the topic in question and by your particular lines of response to the issues involved. Note taking for philosophy is very much an individual art, which you develop as you progress. By and large it is not of much use to copy out reams of text as part of your researches. Nor is it generally helpful to read a great number of pages without making any note of what they contain for future reference. But between these two extremes it is up to you to find the mean that best helps you in getting your thoughts together.

Libraries and electronic resources

The University's Baillieu Library (including the Institute of Education Resource Centre), which is open to all members of the University, contains more than 2,500 years' worth of philosophical writings. The best way to become acquainted with them is by using them, including using the catalogues (including the Baillieu's on-line catalogues and subject resources web-pages), following up a work's references (and references in the references), intelligent browsing of the shelves, etc.

In the main Baillieu Library, the philosophical books are located (mostly) between 100–199 in the Dewey decimal system, and philosophical journals are located in the basement. The Reference section on the ground floor also has some relevant works. The Education Resource Centre also has a good philosophy collection.

In addition to hard-copy philosophical writings, there is also a variety of electronic resources in philosophy, mostly internet-based. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy was already mentioned above. Links to other useful internet sites (such as the Australasian Association of Philosophy website) can be found through the Baillieu Library's web-page and the Philosophy Department's web-page.

A strong word of warning, however, for the would-be philosophical web-surfer: because anyone can put material on a website, all kinds of stuff, of varying levels of quality, is out there - and new-comers to philosophy are usually not well placed to sort their way through it. Unless you have a very good understanding of what you're looking for - and what you're not looking for - most of you will be much better off simply carefully reading and thinking about a central text for your course, eg Descartes' First Meditation, rather than wandering about the internet clicking on all the hits for "Descartes". Exercise your mind, not your index finger.

Writing your essay

Planning and structuring your essay.

It is very important that you plan your essay, so that you have an idea of what you are going to write before you start to write it. Of course, you will most likely alter things in later drafts, but you should still start off by having a plan. Planning your essay includes laying out a structure. It is very important that your essay has a clearly discernible structure, ie that it is composed of parts and that these parts are logically connected. This helps both you and your reader to be clear about how your discussion develops, stage by stage, as you work through the issues at hand.

Poor essay structure is one of the most common weaknesses in student philosophy essays. Taking the time to work on the structure of your essay is time well spent, especially since skill in structuring your thoughts for presentation to others should be among the more enduring things you learn at university. A common trap that students fall into is to start their essay by writing the first sentence, then writing another one that seems to follow that one, then another one that sort of fits after that one, then another that might or might not have some connection with the previous one, and so on until the requisite 1,500 words are used up. The result is usually a weak, rambling essay.

There are, of course, no hard and fast rules about how to structure a philosophy essay. Again, it is a skill you develop through practice, and much will depend on the particular topic at hand. Nonetheless, it might be helpful to begin by developing an essay structure around the basic distinction between your exposition and your critical discussion (as discussed above). In this it will be important that you make clear who is putting forward which point, that is, make it clear whether you are presenting your own thoughts or are expounding someone else's. (Again, confusion in this regard is a common problem in student essays.) It can often help your structuring if you provide headings for different sections (possibly numbered or lettered). Again, this helps both your reader to follow your discussion and you to develop your thoughts. At each stage, show clearly the logical relations between and the reasons for your points, so that your reader can see clearly why you say what you say and can see clearly the development in your discussion.

Another key to structuring your essay can be found in the old adage "Tell 'em what you're gonna tell 'em. Tell 'em. Then tell 'em what you've told 'em", which provides you with a ready-made structure: Introduction, Main Body, and Conclusion.

In your Introduction, first introduce the issues the essay is concerned with. In doing so, try to state briefly just what the problem is and (if there is space) why it is a problem. This also applies, of course, to issues covered in text-focused essay topics. Next, tell the reader what it is that you are going to do about those problems in the Main Body. This is usually done by giving a brief sketch or overview of the main points you will present, a "pre-capitulation", so to speak, of your essay's structure. This is one way of showing your reader that you have a grasp (indeed, it helps you get a grasp) of your essay as a structured and integrated whole, and gives them some idea of what to expect by giving them an idea of how you have decided to answer the question. Of course, for reasons of space, your Introduction might not be very long, but something along these lines is likely to be useful.

In your Main Body, do what you've said you'll do. Here is where you should present your exposition(s) and your critical discussion(s). Thus, it is here that the main philosophical substance of your essay is to be found. Of course, what that substance is and how you will present it will depend on the particular topic before you. But, whatever the topic, make clear at each stage just what it is you are doing. You can be quite explicit about this. (eg "I shall now present Descartes' ontological argument for the existence of God, as it is presented in his Fifth Meditation. There will be three stages to this presentation.") Don't think that such explicitness must be a sign of an unsophisticated thinker.

A distinct Conclusion is perhaps not always necessary, if your Main Body has clearly "played out" your argument. So you don't always have to present a grand summation or definitive judgement at the end. Still, often for your own sake, try to state to yourself what it is your essay has achieved and see if it would be appropriate to say so explicitly. Don't feel that you must come up with earth-shattering conclusions. Of course, utter banality or triviality are not good goals, either. Also, your essay doesn't always have to conclude with a "solution" to a problem. Sometimes, simply clarifying an issue or problem is a worthy achievement and can merit first-class honours. A good conclusion to a philosophy essay, then, will usually combine a realistic assessment of the ambit and cogency of its claims with a plausible proposal that those claims have some philosophical substance.

What you write in your essay should always be relevant to the question posed. This is another common problem in student essays, so continually ask yourself "Am I addressing the question here?" First-class answers to a question can vary greatly, but you must make sure that your essay responds to the question asked, even if you go on to argue that the question as posed is itself problematic. (eg "To ask ‘What is scientific method?' presupposes that science follows one basic method. However, I shall argue that there are, in fact, several different scientific methods and that these are neither unified nor consistent.") Be wary, however, of twisting a topic too far out of shape in order to fit your favoured theme. (You would be ill-advised, for example, to proceed thus: "What is scientific method? This is a question asked by many great minds. But what is a mind? In this essay, I shall discuss the views of Thomas Aquinas on the nature of mind.")

This requirement of relevance is not intended as an authoritarian constraint on your intellectual freedom. It is part of the skill of paying sustained and focused attention to something put before you - which is one of the most important skills you can develop at university. If you do have other philosophical interests that you want to pursue (such as Aquinas on mind), then please do pursue them, in addition to writing your essay on the set topic. At no stage does the requirement of relevance prevent you from pursuing your other interests.

Citing Philosophical "Authorities"

There might be occasions when you want to quote other philosophers and writers apart from when you are quoting them because they are the subject of your essay. There are two basic reasons why you might want to do this. First, you might quote someone because their words constitute a good or exemplary expression or articulation of an idea you are dealing with, whether as its proponent, critic, or simply its chronicler. (eg "As Nietzsche succinctly put the point, 'There are no moral phenomena at all, only a moral interpretation of phenomena'.*") You may or may not want to endorse the idea whose good expression you have quoted, but simply want to use the philosopher as a spokesperson for or example of that view. But be clear about what you think the quote means and be careful about what you are doing with the quote. It won't do all the work for you.

The second reason you might want to quote a philosopher is because you think their words constitute an "authoritative statement" of a view. Here you want to use the fact that, eg Bertrand Russell maintained that there are two kinds of knowledge of things (namely, knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description) in support of your claim that there are two such kinds of knowledge of things. However, be very careful in doing this, for the nature of philosophical authority is not so simple here. That is to say, what really matters is not that Bertrand Russell the man held that view; what matters are his reasons for holding that view. So, when quoting philosophers for this second reason, be careful that you appreciate in what exactly the authority lies - which means that you should show that you appreciate why Russell maintained that thesis. Of course, you can't provide long arguments for every claim you make or want to make use of; every essay will have its enabling but unargued assumptions. But at least be clear about these. (eg "For the purposes of this essay, I shall adopt Russell's thesis* that ...").

* Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, trans. R.J. Hollingdale (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [first German ed.1886]), Sec. 108.

* See Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967 [first pub. 1912]), Ch. 5.

Philosophy is by its nature a relatively abstract and generalising business. (Note that abstractness and generality are not the same thing. Nor do vagueness and obscurity automatically attend them.) Sometimes a longish series of general ideas and abstract reasonings can become difficult for the reader (and often the writer) to follow. It can often help, therefore, to use some concrete or specific examples in your discussion. (Note that there can be different levels of concreteness and specificity in examples.)

Examples can be taken from history, current events, literature, and so on, or can be entirely your own invention. Exactly what examples you employ and just how and why you use them will, of course, depend on the case. Some uses might be: illustration of a position, problem or idea to help make it clearer; evidence for, perhaps even proof of, a proposition; a counter-example; a case-study to be returned to at various points during the essay; or a problem for a theory or viewpoint to be applied to. Again, be clear about what the example is and how and why you use it. Be careful not to get distracted by, or bogged down in, your examples. Brevity is usually best.

English expression

There's another old saying: "If you can't say what you mean, then you can't mean what you say" - and this very much applies to philosophical writing. Thus, in writing philosophically, you must write clearly and precisely. This means that good philosophical writing requires a good grasp of the language in which it is written, including its grammar and vocabulary. (See Section 9.3 for advice for people from non-English speaking backgrounds.) A high standard of writing skills is to be expected of Arts graduates. Indeed, this sort of skill will last longer than your memory of, for example, the three parts of the Platonic soul (though it is also hoped that some of the content of what you study will also stick). So use your time at university (in all your subjects) to develop these skills further.

Having a mastery of a good range of terms, being sensitive to the subtleties of their meaning, and being able to construct grammatically correct and properly punctuated sentences are essential to the clear articulation and development of your thoughts. Think of grammar, not as some old-fashioned set of rules of linguistic etiquette, but rather as the "internal logic" of a sentence, that is, as the relationships between the words within a sentence which enable them to combine to make sense.

Virtually all sentences in philosophical writing are declarative (ie. make statements), as opposed to interrogative, imperative or exclamatory types of sentences. There is some place, though, for interrogative sentences, ie. questions. (Note that, in contrast, this guide, which is not in the essay genre, contains many imperative sentences, ie. commands.) As you craft each (declarative) sentence in your essay, remember the basics of sentence construction. Make clear what the sentence is about (its subject) and what you are saying about it (the predicate). Make clear what the principal verb is in the predicate, since it is what usually does the main work in saying something about the subject. Where a sentence consists of more than one clause (as many do in philosophical writing), make clear what work each clause is doing. Attend closely, then, to each and every sentence you write so that its sense is clear and is the sense you intend it to have. Think carefully about what it is you want each particular sentence to do (in relation to both those sentences immediately surrounding it and the essay as a whole) and structure your sentence so that it does what you want it to do. To help you with your own sentence construction skills, when reading others' philosophical works (or indeed any writing) attend closely to the construction of each sentence so as to be alive to all the subtleties of the text.

Good punctuation is an essential part of sentence construction. Its role is to help to display the grammar of a sentence so that its meaning is clear. As an example of how punctuation can fundamentally change the grammar and, hence, meaning of a sentence, compare (i) "Philosophers, who argue for the identity of mind and brain, often fail to appreciate the radical consequences of that thesis." and (ii) "Philosophers who argue for the identity of mind and brain often fail to appreciate the radical consequences of that thesis." In the first sentence it is asserted (falsely, as it happens) that all philosophers argue for the identity of mind and brain; in the second, only some philosophers are said to argue for the identity of mind and brain. Only the punctuation differs in the two strings of identical words, and yet the meanings of the sentences are very different. Confusions over this sort of thing are common weaknesses in student essays, and leave readers asking themselves "What exactly is this student trying to say?"

It will be assumed that you can spell - which is not a matter of pressing the "spell-check" key on a word-processor. A good dictionary and a good thesaurus should always be within reach as you write your essay.

Also, try to shorten and simplify sentences where you can do so without sacrificing the subtlety and inherent complexity of the discussion. Where a sentence is becoming too long or complex, it is likely that too many ideas are being bundled up together too closely. Stop and separate your ideas out. If an idea is a good or important one, it will usually deserve its own sentence.

Your "intra-sentential logic" should work very closely with the "inter-sentential logic" of your essay, ie. with the logical relations between your sentences. (This "inter-sentential logic" is what "logic" is usually taken to refer to.) For example, to enable sentences P and Q to work together to yield sentence R as a conclusion, you need to make clear that there are elements within P and Q which connect up to yield R. Consider the following example: "Infanticide is the intentional killing of a human being. However, murder is regarded by all cultures as morally abhorrent. Therefore, people who commit infanticide should be punished." This doesn't work as an argument, because the writer has not constructed sentences which provide the connecting concepts in the various subjects and predicates, even though each sentence is grammatically correct (and possibly even true).

If you are concerned to write not only clearly and precisely, but also with some degree of grace and style (and I hope you are), it's still best to get the clarity and precision right first, in a plain, straightforward way, and then to polish things up afterwards to get the style and grace you want. But don't sacrifice clarity and precision for the sake of style and grace - be prepared to sacrifice that beautiful turn of phrase if its presence is going to send your discussion down an awkward path of reasoning. Aim to hit the nail on the head rather than make a loud bang. What you are likely to find, however, is that a philosophy essay which really is clear and precise will have a large measure of grace and style in its very clarity and precision.

Remember that obscurity is not a sign of profundity. (Some profound thought may well be difficult to follow, but that doesn't mean that one can achieve profundity merely through producing obscure, difficult-to-read writing.) Your marker is interested in what's actually in your essay, not what's possibly inside your head (or indeed what's possibly in some book you happen to have referred to in your essay). So avoid hinting at or alluding suggestively to ideas, especially where they are meant to do some important work in your essay. Instead, lay them out explicitly and directly. Of course, you won't have space to spell out every single idea, so work out which ideas do the most important work and make sure that you at least get those ideas clearly articulated. In expounding a text or problem that ultimately just is vague, muddled, or obscure, try to convey such vagueness, muddle or obscurity clearly, rather than simply reproducing it in your own writing. That is, be clear that and how a text or problem has such features, and then perhaps do your best to make matters clearer.

Despite these stern pronouncements, don't be afraid of sometimes saying things which happen to sound a little odd, if you have tried various formulations and think you have now expressed your ideas just as they should be expressed. Philosophy is often an exploratory business, and new ways of seeing and saying things can sometimes be a part of that exploration.

The need for clarity and precision in philosophical writing sometimes means that you need to stipulate your own meaning for a term. When you want to use a particular word in a particular way for the purposes of your essay - as a "technical term" - be clear about it. (eg "In this essay, I shall intend ‘egoism' to mean ...") Also, be consistent in your technical meanings, or else note when you are not. Be wary, though, of inventing too many neologisms or being too idiosyncratic in your stipulations.

With regard to what "authorial pronoun" to adopt in a philosophy essay, it's standard to write plainly in the first person singular ("I", "me", "my", etc.) rather than use the royal "we" (as in "we shall argue that ..."), or the convoluted quasi-legal indirect form ("It is submitted that ..."), or the scientific objectivity of a physics experimental report. Nonetheless, stick closer to "I argue", "I suggest", "my definition", etc., than to "I wish", "I hate", "my feeling", etc. A philosophy essay is still something more intellectual and formal than a personal reminiscence, polemic, or proclamation. In terms of audience, it's probably best to think of your reader as someone who is intelligent, open to discussion and knows a little about the topic you're writing on, but perhaps is not quite clear or decided about the issues, or needs convincing of the view you want to put forward, or is curious about what you think about the issues.

Try also to use non-discriminatory language, ie. language which does not express or imply inequality of worth between people on the basis of sex, gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, and so on. As you write, you will be considering carefully your choice of words to express your thoughts. You will almost always find that it is possible to avoid discriminatory language by rephrasing your sentences.

Other things to avoid:

• waffle and padding
• vagueness and ambiguity
• abbreviations (this guide I'm writing isn't an eg. of what's req'd. in a phil. essay)
• colloquialisms (which can really get up your reader's nose)
• writing whose syntax merely reflects the patterns of informal speech
• unnecessary abstractness or indirectness
• unexplained jargon
• flattery and invective
• overly-rhetorical questions (do you really need me to tell you what they are?) and other flourishes

There are many guides to good writing available. Anyone who writes (whether in the humanities or the sciences, whether beginners or experienced professionals) will do well to have some on hand. Most good bookshops and libraries will have some. Among the most consulted works are (check for the latest editions):

• J. M. Williams and G. C. Colomb, Style: Toward Clarity and Grace (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995)
• W. Strunk and E. B. White, The Elements of Style, 4th ed. (New York: Longman, 2000)
• E. Gowers, The Complete Plain Words, 3rd ed. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987)
• R. W. Burchfield, ed., The New Fowler's Modern English Usage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996)
• Pam Peters, The Cambridge Australian English Style Guide (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1995)
• Australian Government Publishing Service, Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers, 5th ed. (Canberra: AGPS, 1995)

Vocabulary of logical argument

Closely related to the above points about English expression is the importance of having a good grasp of what can rather generally be called "the vocabulary of logical argument". These sorts of terms are crucial in articulating clearly and cogently a logical line of argument. Such argumentation will, of course, be of central importance in whatever discipline you are studying, indeed in any sphere of life that requires effective thinking and communication. I have in mind terms such as these (grouped a little loosely):

all, any, every, most, some, none, a, an, the that, this, it, he, she, they if . . . , then. . . ; if and only if . . . , then . . . ; unless either . . . or . . .; neither . . . nor . . . not, is, are therefore, thus, hence, so, because, since, follows, entails, implies, infer, consequence, conditional upon moreover, furthermore which, that, whose and, but, however, despite, notwithstanding, nevertheless, even, though, still possibly, necessarily, can, must, may, might, ought, should true, false, probable, certain sound, unsound, valid, invalid, fallacious, supported, proved, contradicted, rebutted, refuted, negated logical, illogical, reasonable, unreasonable, rational, irrational assumption, premise, belief, claim, proposition argument, reason, reasoning, evidence, proof

Most of these are quite simple terms, but they are crucial in argumentative or discursive writing of all kinds. (Many are themselves the subject of study in logic, a branch of philosophy). The sloppy use of these sorts of terms is another common weakness in students' philosophy essays. Pay close and careful attention to how you employ them. Moreover, pay close and careful attention to how the authors you read use them. For further discussion of some of these terms and others, see:

• Basic Philosophical Vocabulary, prepared by the staff of the Philosophy Department and available from the programs Office
• Wesley C. Salmon, Logic, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973)
• Antony Flew, Thinking About Thinking (London: Fontana, 1985)
• Graham Priest, Logic: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)
• Joel Rudinow and Vincent E. Barry, Invitation to Critical Thinking, 4th ed. (Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace, 1999)

Revising your essay

It is virtually essential that you write a first draft of your essay and then work on that draft to work towards your finished essay. Indeed, several drafts may well be necessary in order to produce your best possible work. It is a rare philosopher indeed who can get things perfectly right on the first attempt, so be prepared to revise and re-develop what you write. Don't be too precious about what you have written, if it appears that it should be sacrificed in the revision process. There is usually a very marked difference between essays which are basically first draft rush-jobs done the night before they are due and those which have been revised and polished. Give yourself time to revise by starting writing early on. For most philosophy students, the greater part of the work in essay writing is in the writing, not in the preliminary researches and planning stages. So be wary of thinking "I've done all the research. I only need to write up my notes, which I can do the night before the essay's due". This is likely to lead to a weak, perhaps non-existent, essay (and very likely a sleepless night).

Stick to the word limit given for your essay. Why are word limits imposed? First, to give the markers a fair basis for comparing student essays. Second, to give you the opportunity to practise the discipline of working creatively under constraints. Skill in this discipline will stand you in very good stead in any sphere where circumstances impose limitations. Again, word limits are not constraints on your intellectual freedom. Outside your essay you are free to write without limit. But even there you'll probably find that your creativity is improved by working under a self-imposed discipline.

As a general rule, most student essays that fall well short of the word limit are weak or lazy attempts at the task, and most essays that go well over the limit are not much stronger or the result of much harder work - the extra length is often due to unstructured waffle or padding which the writer hasn't thought enough about so as to edit judiciously. If you structure your essay clearly, you'll find it easier to revise and edit, whether in order to contract or expand it. ("Hmm, let's see: section 2 is much longer than section 4, but is not as important, so I'll cut it down. And I should expand section 3, because that's a crucial step. And I can shift that third paragraph in the Introduction to the Conclusion.")

Plagiarism and originality

Plagiarism is essentially a form of academic dishonesty or cheating. At university level, such dishonesty is not tolerated and is dealt with severely, usually by awarding zero marks for a plagiarised essay or, in some cases, dismissing a student from the university.

When you submit your essay, you are implicitly stating that the essay is your own original and independent work, that you have not submitted the same work for assessment in another subject, and that where you have made use of other people's work, this is properly acknowledged. If you know that this is not in fact the case, you are being dishonest. (In a number of university departments, students are in fact required to sign declarations of academic honesty.)

Plagiarism is the knowing but unacknowledged use of work by someone else (including work by another student, and indeed oneself - see below) and which is being presented as one's own work. It can take a number of forms, including:

• copying : exactly reproducing another's words
• paraphrasing : expressing the meaning of another's words in different words
• summarising : reproducing the main points of another's argument
• cobbling : copying, paraphrasing or summarising the work of a number of different people and piecing them together to produce one body of text
• submitting one's own work when it has already been submitted for assessment in another subject
• collusion : presenting an essay as your own independent work when in fact it has been produced, in whole or part, in collusion with one or more other people

None of the practices of copying, paraphrasing, summarizing or cobbling is wrong in itself, but when one or more is done without proper acknowledgment it constitutes plagiarism. Therefore, all sources must be adequately and accurately acknowledged in footnotes or endnotes. (See Section 7.) Plagiarism from the internet in particular can be a temptation for a certain kind of student. However, be warned: there is a number of very good internet and software tools for identifying plagiarism.

With regard to collusion, it's undoubtedly often very helpful to discuss one's work with others, be it other students, family members, friends or teachers. Indeed, philosophy thrives on dialogue. However, don't kid yourself that you would simply be extending that process if you were to ask your interlocutor to join with you in the writing of your essay, whether by asking them to tell you what you should write or to write down some of their thoughts for you to reproduce in your essay. At the end of the day, you must be the one to decide what goes into your essay.

Originality

Students sometimes worry about whether they will be able to develop "original ideas", especially in light of the fact that nearly every philosophical idea one comes up with seems to have been thought of before by someone else. There is no denying that truly original work in philosophy is well rewarded, but your first aim should be to develop ideas that you think are good and not merely different. If, after arguing for what you believe is right, and arguing in way that you think is good, you then discover that someone else has had the same idea, don't throw your work away - you should feel vindicated to some extent that your thinking has been congruent with that of another (possibly great) philosopher. (If you have not yet handed your essay in when you make this discovery, make an appropriately placed note to that effect.) Don't be fooled, however, into thinking that plagiarism can be easily passed off as congruent thinking. Of course, if that other philosopher's ideas have helped you to develop your ideas, then this is not a matter of congruent ideas but rather of derivative ideas, and this must be adequately acknowledged. If, after developing your ideas, you discover that they are original, then that is an added bonus. But remember that it is more important to be a good philosopher than an original one.

Quotations, footnotes, endnotes and bibliography

Quotations in your essay should be kept to a minimum. The markers know the central texts pretty well already and so don't need to have pages thereof repeated in front of them. Of course, some quotation will usually be important and useful - sometimes essential - in both exposition and critical discussion.

When you quote the words of someone else directly, you must make the quotation clearly distinct from your own text, using quotation marks . (eg "Descartes said that 'it is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once.'* He makes this claim …" - where the words quoted from Descartes are in 'single quotation marks'. Note that it is relatively arbitrary whether one uses 'single' or "double" quotation marks for "first order" quotations, but whichever style you adopt, use it consistently in the one essay.) Alternatively, where the quoted passage is greater than three lines, put the quoted words in a separate indented paragraph , so that your essay would look like this:

In his First Meditation , Descartes argues as follows:

Whatever I have up till now accepted as most true I have acquired either from the senses or through the senses. But from time to time I have found that the senses deceive, and it is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once.* In this essay I shall argue that prudence does not in fact require us to distrust our senses and that Descartes's sceptical method is therefore seriously flawed.

In both cases, the quotations must be given proper referencingin a footnote or endnote.

When you are not quoting another person directly, but are still making use of their work - as in indirect quotations (eg "Descartes says that it is wise not to trust something that has deceived us before"*), paraphrases, summaries, and cobblings - you must still acknowledge your debts, using footnotes or endnotes.

* Rene Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy , trans. John Cottingham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986 [first French ed., 1641]), p. 12.

Footnotes and endnotes

Footnotes appear at the foot of the same page on which the cited material appears, clearly separated from the main body of the text, each one clearly numbered. Endnotes appear at the end of the essay, again clearly separated from the main body of text, numbered and headed "Endnotes" or "Notes". Either method is acceptable, but you should choose one and stick with it throughout the one essay.

Below are some examples of how to put the relevant referencing information in footnotes and endnotes. This is not intended as an exercise in pedantry, but as a guide to how to provide the information needed for adequate referencing. The reason we provide this information is to enable our readers to find the sources we use in order to verify them and to allow them to pursue the material further if it interests them. In your own researches you will come to value good referencing in the texts you read as a helpful source of further references on a topic. Again, it is this sort of research skill that an Arts graduate will be expected to have mastered.

There are various conventions for writing up footnotes and endnotes. The Philosophy Department does not require that any particular convention be followed, only that you be consistent in your use of the convention that you do choose. For other conventions see the style guides mentioned above, or simply go to some texts published by reputable publishers and see what formats they employ.

Imagine, then, that the following are endnotes at the end of your essay. I will explain them below.

• James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy , 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993), p. 25.
• Philippa Foot, "Moral Relativism", in Michael Krausz and Jack W. Meiland, eds., Relativism: Cognitive and Moral (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1982), p. 155.
• Ibid., p. 160.
• Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, trans. H. J. Paton (New York: Harper and Row, 1964 [first German ed., 1785]), p. 63.
• Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, (London: Dent, 1973 [first pub. 1651]),p. 65.
• Rachels, The Elements, p. 51.
• Peter Winch, "The Universalizability of Moral Judgements", The Monist 49 (1965), p. 212.
• Antony Duff, "Legal Punishment", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2001/entries/legal-punishment/ at 15 June 2003, sec. 6.

Notes explained

• This is your first reference to a book called The Elements of Moral Philosophy. The title is given in full and in italics. If you are unable to use italics, then you should underline the title. The book's author is James Rachels. It's the 2nd edition of that book, which was published in New York, by the publishers McGraw-Hill, in 1993. The page you have referred to in your main text is page 25
• This is your first reference to Philippa Foot's article, "Moral Relativism", the title of which is put in "quotation marks". This article appeared in a book (title in italics) which is an anthology of different articles, and which was edited by Krausz and Meiland (names in full). The rest is in the same style as note (1)
• "Ibid." is short for "ibidem", which means "in the same place" in Latin. Use it on its own when you want to refer to exactly the same work and page number as in the immediately preceding note. So here the reference is again to Foot's article at page 155
• Ditto, except this time you refer to a different page in Foot's article, namely page 160
• This is reference to a book by Kant. Same book details as per note (1), except that, because this is a translation, you include the translator's name, and the date of the first edition in the original language
• This is a book reference again, so it's the same as note (1), except that, because it's an old book, you include the date of the original edition. (How old does a book have to be before it merits this treatment? There is no settled view. Note, though, that this convention is not usually followed for ancient authors)
• Here you are referring to Rachels' book again, but, because you are not in the very next note after a reference to it, you can't use "ibid.". Simply give the author's surname and a short title of the book, plus page reference. There is also a common alternative to this, whereby you give the surname, and write "op. cit." (which is short for "opere citato", which is Latin for "in the work already cited") and page reference (eg "Rachels, op. cit., p. 51.") Your reader then has to scan back over the notes to see what that "op." was exactly. The first option (author plus short title) is usually easier on the reader
• This is a reference to an article by Peter Winch in a journal called The Monist. The article's title is in "quotes", the journal title is in italics. The volume of the journal is 49, the year of publication is 1965, the page referred to is p. 212
• This is a reference to an article in the internet-based Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The article is titled "Legal Punishment" and was written by Antony Duff. The Encyclopedia was edited by Edward N. Zalta. Note that I have basically followed the mode of citation that the Encyclopedia itself recommends. (This is one sign of the site being a reputable one. Where a site makes such a recommendation, it's best to follow it.) I have, however, also added the date on which the article was retrieved from the site, and put the author's given name first, to be consistent with the other footnotes. I have also added the reference to section 6, in an effort to be more precise as to where in the article the material I used came from. Since web pages aren't numbered in the manner of hard copy works, it will help if you are able to refer to some other feature, such as paragraphs or sections, so as to pin-point your reference. In the absence of a site recommending a mode of citation to its own material, the basic information needed for adequate citation of internet-based material is (where identifiable) the author, the document title, the year the document was created, the website name, the uniform resource locator (URL) in <arrow-brackets>, date of retrieval, and a pin-point reference*

* I am here following the mode of citation of internet materials recommended in Melbourne University Law Review Association Inc, Australian Guide to Legal Citation , 2nd ed. (Melbourne: Melbourne University Law Review Association Inc, 2002), pp. 70-73. I have, though, added the desirability of a pin-point reference.

Bibliography

At the end of your essay (after your endnotes, if used) you should list in a bibliography all of the works referred to in your notes, as well as any other works you consulted in researching and writing your essay. The list should be in alphabetical order, going by authors' surnames. The format should be the same as for your notes, except that you drop the page references and should put surnames first. So the bibliography of our mock-essay above would look like this:

• Duff, Antony, "Legal Punishment", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2001/entries/legal-punishment/ at 15 June 2003
• Foot, Philippa, "Moral Relativism", in Michael Krausz and Jack Meiland, eds., Relativism: Cognitive and Moral (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1982)
• Hobbes, Thomas, Leviathan (London: Dent, 1973 [first pub.1651])
• Kant, Immanuel, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals , trans. H.J. Paton (New York: Harper and Row, 1964 [first German ed. 1785])
• Rachels, James, The Elements of Moral Philosophy , 2nd ed., (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993)
• Winch, Peter, "The Universalizability of Moral Judgements", The Monist 49 (1965)

Presentation of essays and seeking advice

Generally, you should present an essay that is legible (hand-writing is OK, but typed or word-processed essays are preferable), in English, on one side of pieces of paper that are somewhere in the vicinity of A4 size and are fixed together . You should attach a completed Cover Sheet provided by the Philosophy program. Plastic document covers, spiral binding and other forms of presentational paraphernalia are not necessary (nor are they usually even desirable, as they mostly just get in the marker's way).

Late essays

Late essays are penalised . (For details of penalties consult the Philosophy program's notice board.)

Essays not handed in

Essays not handed in at all get zero marks. An essay that is handed in but gets a mark below 50 (and so is technically a "failed" essay) still gets some marks. (At least, it will so long as it's not so extremely late that the deducted marks wipe out all the marks it would have received if handed in on time.) All marks received for your essay (whether pass or fail) go toward your final score in the subject. Therefore, even if you think your essay is bound to fail (but please let your marker be the judge of that), or the due date has already passed, or both, it is still in your interests to hand your essay in .

Tutors and lecturers

Philosophy staff are not there just to be listened to by you; they are also there to listen to you. So don't hesitate to contact your tutor or lecturer to discuss questions or problems you have concerning your work.

If you have a legitimate excuse, you may be granted an extension on the due date for your essay by the lecturer in charge. Similarly, special consideration may also be granted when illness or other circumstances adversely affect your work. Applications for special consideration are made online via the Special Consideration web page.

Student counselling

Some personal or non-philosophical academic difficulties you might have you might want to discuss with someone other than your tutor or lecturer. Student Counselling and Psychological Services are there for you to discuss all sorts of problems you might encounter. Please consult your student diary for details on the counselling service.

English language assistance

As noted above, good philosophical writing requires a good grasp of the language in which it is written. If you are from a non-English speaking background and are having difficulties with your English expression in an academic context, you might like to make use of the services provided by Student Services Academic Skills . Many native English speakers, too, can benefit from short "refresher" courses and workshops run by the Centre. Please consult your student diary for details about this service.

A bit on Philosophy exams

Essays of the sort discussed so far in this guide are not the only form of assessment in the Philosophy program - examinations are also set. What is to be said about them?

First, not much that is different from what's been said above about philosophy essays. This is because what you write in a philosophy exam is none other than a philosophy essay . Have a look at past philosophy exam papers, in the Gibson and Baillieu libraries, to get a feel for them. The only basic difference between essays and exams is the matter of what constraints you're working under. Essays have word limits; exams have time limits . Again, stick to them. (Actually, you'll be made to stick to them by the exam invigilators.)

It's best, then, to think about how long to spend writing on an exam essay topic, rather than about how many words to write on it. Simple arithmetic will tell you how much time to spend on each exam question. (eg if you have a 2-hour exam and have to answer 3 questions, each worth one-third of the exam mark, then spend 40 minutes on each question.) Avoid the trap of "borrowing time" from a later question in order to perfect your answer to an earlier question, and then working faster on the later questions to catch up on lost time - this is likely to get you in a tangle. There are no word limits in philosophy exam essays, but don't think that the more you scrawl across the page, the more marks you'll get. Nonetheless, use the time you've got so as to maximise your display of your philosophical understanding and skills in answering the question.

Planning and structuring remain very important in exam essays. With regard to the niceties of footnotes, endnotes and bibliographies, etc., these are not necessary, so don't waste time on these. However, if you quote or refer to a specific passage from a text, do indicate clearly that it is a quotation or reference. (The principle of being clear as to who is saying what remains central.) If you have the reference handy, just put it briefly in the text of your exam essay. (eg "As Descartes says in Meditation I (p. 12), . . ." or "'[I]t is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once' (Descartes, Meditation I, p. 12)".) Generally speaking, you will show your familiarity with any relevant texts by how you handle them in your discussion. This is also true for your non-exam essays.

Your preparation for the exam should have been done well before entering the exam hall. Note that various subjects have restrictions on what texts and other items can be brought into the exam hall. (Consult the Philosophy program's notice board for details.) Many subjects will have "closed book" exams. Even if an exam is "open book", if you are properly prepared, you should not need to spend much time at all consulting texts or notes during the exam itself.

You won't have time for redrafting and revising your exam essay (which makes planning and structuring your answers before you start writing all the more important). If you do want to delete something, just cross it out clearly. Don't waste time with liquid paper or erasers. Write legibly . Don't wr. "point form" sav. time. Diff. kn. mean. use incomp. sent.

Finally, read the instructions at the beginning of the exam paper. They are important. (eg it's not a good strategy to answer two questions from Part A, when the Instructions tell you to answer two questions, one from Part A and one from Part B.) Note the (somewhat quaint) University practice of starting Reading Time some time before the stated time for the exam. Philosophy exams usually have 15 minutes of reading time. (Check for each of your exams.) So, if your exam timetable says the exam is at 2.15 pm, with reading time of 15 minutes, then the reading time starts at 2.00 pm and the writing time starts at 2.15pm - so get to the exam hall well before 2.00 pm. Reading time is very important. Use it to decide which questions you'll answer and to start planning your answers.

Checklist of questions

• Do I understand the essay question ? Do I know when the essay is due ?
• Do I know which texts to consult? Do I know where to find them?
• Have I made useful notes from my reading of the relevant texts?
• Have I made a plan of how I'll approach the question in my essay?
• Have I given myself enough time to draft and redraft my essay?
• Have I written a clearly structured essay? Is it clear what each stageis doing? Do I do what I say I'll do in my Introduction?
• Have I clearly distinguished exposition and critical discussion ? Have I given a fair and accurate account of the author(s) in question?
• Is my response to the topic relevant ? Do I answer the question? Have I kept my essay within the general bounds of the topic?
• Have I displayed a good grasp of the vocabulary of logical argument ? Are my arguments logically valid and sound? Are my claims supported by reasons ? Am I consistent within my essay?
• Is my English expression clear and precise ? Are my grammar, punctuation and spelling correct? Have I said what I meant to say? Is my writing legible?
• Have I fully acknowledged all my sources in footnotes or endnotes? Are my quotations accurate? Have I included a bibliography ?
• Do I need to revise any part of my essay again?
• Have I made a copy or photocopy of my essay for myself?
• Have I kept the receipt for my handed-in essay?

How to Write a Philosophy Essay: Ultimate Guide

What Is a Philosophy Essay: Definition

Philosophical writing isn't your typical assignment. Its aim isn't to provide an overview of professional philosophers' works and say whether you agree with them.

Philosophy demands becoming a philosopher for the time of writing, thinking analytically and critically of ideas, pondering the Big Questions, and asking 'Why?'. That's why it requires time and energy, as well as a lot of thinking on your part.

But what is philosophy essay, exactly? If you're tasked with writing one, you'll have to select a thesis in the philosophical domain and argue for or against it. Then, you can support your thesis with other professional philosophers' works. But it has to contain your own philosophical contribution, too. (This is only one definition of philosophy essay, of course.)

What's a Good Philosophy Paper Outline?

Before you start writing your first line, you should make a philosophy essay outline. Think of it as a plan for your philosophy paper that briefly describes each paragraph's point.

As for how to write a philosophy essay outline, here are a few tips for you:

• Start with your thesis. What will you be arguing for or against?
• Read what philosophical theory has to say and note sources for your possible arguments and counterarguments.
• Decide on the definitions of core concepts to include precise philosophical meanings in your essay.
• After careful and extended reflection, organize your ideas following the structure below.

How To Structure a Philosophy Paper?

Like any other essay, a philosophy paper consists of an introduction, a main body, and a conclusion. Sticking to this traditional philosophy essay structure will help you avoid unnecessary stress.

Here's your mini-guide on how to structure a philosophy essay:

• Introduction - Clarify the question you will be answering in your philosophy paper. State your thesis – i.e., the answer you'll be arguing for. Explain general philosophical terms if needed.
• Main body - Start with providing arguments for your stance and refute all the objections for each of them. Then, describe other possible answers and their reasoning – and counter the main arguments in their support.
• Conclusion - Sum up all possible answers to the questions and reiterate why yours is the most viable one.

What's an Appropriate Philosophy Essay Length?

In our experience, 2,000 to 2,500 words are enough to cover the topic in-depth without compromising the quality of the writing.

However, see whether you have an assigned word limit before getting started. If it's shorter or longer than we recommend, stick to that word limit in writing your essay on philosophy.

What Format Should You Use for a Philosophy Paper?

As a service we can attest that most students use the APA guidelines as their philosophy essay format. However, your school has the final say in what format you should stick to.

Sometimes, you can be asked to use a different college philosophy essay format, like MLA or Chicago. But if you're the one to choose the guidelines and don't know which one would be a good philosophy argumentative essay format, let's break down the most popular ones.

APA, MLA, and Chicago share some characteristics:

• Font: Time New Roman, 12 pt
• Line spacing: double
• Margins: 1" (left and right)
• Page number: in the header

But here's how they differ:

• A title page required
• Sources list: 'References' page
• No title page required
• Sources list: 'Works cited' page
• Sources list: 'Bibliography' page
• Footnotes and endnotes are required for citations

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Guideline on How to Write a Philosophy Essay

If you still don't feel that confident about writing a philosophy paper, don't worry. Philosophical questions, by definition, have more than one interpretation. That's what makes them so challenging to write about.

To help you out in your philosophical writing journey, we've prepared this list of seven tips on how to write a philosophy essay.

• Read Your Sources Thoughtfully

Whether your recommended reading includes Dante's Divine Comedy or Jean-Paul Sartre's Existentialism Is a Humanism , approach your sources with curiosity and analytical thinking. Don't just mindlessly consume those texts. Instead, keep asking yourself questions while you're reading them, such as:

• What concepts and questions does the author address?
• What's the meaning behind key ideas and metaphors in the text?
• What does the author use as a convincing argument?
• Are there any strange or obscure distinctions?

As for which sources you should turn to, that all depends on your central question; philosophy topics for essay are diverse and sometimes opposed. So, you'll have to do your fair share of research.

• Brainstorm & Organize Your Ideas

As you're reading those texts, jot down what comes to your mind. It can be a great quote you've stumbled upon, an idea for an argument, or your thoughtful, critical responses to certain opinions.

Then, sort through and organize all of those notes into an outline for your essay in philosophy. Make sure that it holds up in terms of logic. And ensure that your arguments and counterarguments are compelling, sensible, and convincing!

Now, you might be wondering how to write a philosophy essay introduction. Don't worry: there's an explanation right below!

• Craft Your Introductory Paragraph

Think of your introduction as a road map preparing your reader for the journey your essay will take them on. This road map will describe the key 'stops' in your essay on philosophy: your topic, stance, and how you will argue for it – and refute other stances.

Don't hesitate to write it out as a step-by-step guide in the first or third person. For example: 'First, I will examine... Then, I will dispute... Finally, I will present….'

Need an example of an excellent introduction for a philosophy paper? You’ll be thrilled to know that we have one of our philosophy essay examples below!

• Present Your Key Arguments & Reflections

Philosophy papers require a fair share of expository writing. This is where you demonstrate your understanding of the topic. So, make your exposition extensive and in-depth, and don't omit anything crucial.

As for the rest of the main body, we've covered how to structure a philosophy essay above. In short, you'll need to present supporting arguments, anticipate objections, and address them.

Use your own words when writing a philosophy paper; avoid pretentious or verbose language. Yes, some technical philosophical terms may be necessary. But the point of a philosophical paper is to present your stance – and develop your own philosophy – on the topic.

• Don't Shy Away from Critical Ideas

Whenever you examine a philosophical theory or text, treat it with a fair share of criticism. This is what it means in practice – and how to structure a philosophy essay around your critical ideas:

• Pinpoint what the theory's or idea's strengths are and every valid argument in its support;
• See the scope of its application – perhaps, there are exceptions you can use as counterarguments;
• Research someone else's criticism of the theory or idea. Develop your own criticism, as well;
• Check if the philosopher already addressed those criticisms.
• Ponder Possible Answers to Philosophical Questions

Writing an essay in philosophy is, in fact, easier for some students as the topic can always have multiple answers, and you can choose any of them. However, this can represent an even tougher challenge for other students. After all, you must consider those possible answers and address them in the paper.

How do you pinpoint those possible answers? Some of them can come to your mind when you brainstorm, especially if you'll be writing about one of the Big Questions. Others will reveal themselves when you start reading other philosophers' works.

Remember to have arguments for and against each possible answer and address objections.

• Write a Powerful Conclusion

The conclusion is where you sum up your paper in just one paragraph. Reiterate your thesis and what arguments support it. But in philosophical writing, you can rarely have a clear, undebatable answer by the end of the paper. So, it's fine if your conclusion doesn't have a definitive verdict.

Here are a few tips on how to write a conclusion in a philosophy essay:

• Don't introduce new arguments or evidence in conclusion – they belong in the main body;
• Avoid overestimating or embellishing the level or value of your work;
• Best conclusions are obvious and logical for those reading the paper – i.e.; a conclusion shouldn't be surprising at all;
• Stay away from poorly explained claims in conclusion.

Philosophical Essay Example

Sometimes, it's better to see how it's done once than to read a thousand guides. We know that like no one else, so we have prepared this short philosophy essay example to show you what excellent philosophy papers look like:

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30 Philosophy Paper Topic Ideas

Philosophical writing concerns questions that don't have clear-cut yes or no answers. So, coming up with philosophy essay topics yourself can be tough.

Fret not: we've put together this list of 30 topics for philosophy papers on ethics and leadership for you. Feel free to use them as-is or tweak them!

15 Ethics Philosophy Essay Topics

Ethics deals with the question of right and wrong. So, if you're looking for philosophy essay topic ideas, ethics concerns some of the most interesting – and most mind-boggling – questions about human behavior.

Here are 15 compelling philosophy essay topics ethics has to offer you:

• Is starting a war always morally wrong?
• Would it be right to legalize euthanasia?
• What is more important: the right to privacy or national security?
• Is justice always fair?
• Should nuclear weapons be banned?
• Should teenagers be allowed to get plastic surgery?
• Can cheating be justifiable?
• Can AI algorithms behave ethically?
• Should you abide by an unfair law?
• Should voting become mandatory?
• When can the right to freedom of speech be limited?
• Is it the consumers' responsibility to fight climate by changing their buying decisions?
• Is getting an abortion immoral?
• Should we give animals their own rights?
• Would human gene editing be immoral?

15 Leadership Philosophy Essay Topics

You're lucky if you're tasked with writing a leadership philosophy essay! We've compiled this list of 15 fresh, unconventional topics for you:

• Is formal leadership necessary for ensuring the team's productivity?
• Can authoritative leadership be ethical?
• How do informal leaders take on this role?
• Should there be affirmative action for formal leadership roles?
• Is it possible to measure leadership?
• What's the most important trait of a leader?
• Is leadership an innate talent or an acquired skill?
• Should leadership mean holding power over others?
• Can a team function without a leader?
• Should you follow a leader no matter what?
• Is leader succession necessary? Why?
• Are leadership and power the same?
• Can we consider influencers contemporary leaders?
• Why do people follow leaders?
• What leadership style is the most ethical one?

7 Helpful Tips on Crafting a Philosophical Essay

Still, feeling stuck writing a philosophical essay? Here are seven more tips on crafting a good philosophy paper that can help you get unstuck:

• Write the way you would talk about the subject. This will help you avoid overly convoluted, poor writing by using more straightforward prose with familiar words.
• Don't focus on having a definitive answer by the end of your philosophical essay if your conclusion states that the question should be clarified further or that there are multiple answers.
• You don't have to answer every question you raise in the paper. Even professional philosophers sometimes don't have all the answers.
• Get straight to the point at the start of your paper. No need to warm up the reader – and inflate your word count.
• Avoid using quotes. Instead, explain the author's point in your own words. But if you feel it's better to use a direct quote, explicitly state how it ties to your argument after it.
• Write in the first person unless your assignment requires you to use the third person.
• Start working on your philosophical essay well in advance. However much time you think you'll need, double it!

7 Common Mistakes to Avoid in Philosophy Writing

Sometimes, knowing what you shouldn't do in a philosophical essay is also helpful. Here are seven common mistakes that often bring down students' grades – but are easily avoidable:

• Appealing to authority – in philosophy, strive to develop your own stance instead;
• Using convoluted sentences to appear more intelligent – instead, use simpler ways to deliver the same meaning;
• Including interesting or important material without tying it to your point – every piece of evidence and every idea should explicitly support your arguments or counterarguments;
• Inflating your word count without delivering value – in the writing process, it's crucial to 'kill your darlings';
• Making poorly explained claims – explicitly present reasons for or against every claim you include;
• Leaving core concepts undefined – explain what you mean by the words like 'free will' or 'existentialism' in the introduction;
• Worrying about being wrong – no one can be proven wrong in philosophy!

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World Studies Extended Essay: Global Themes

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World Studies Global Themes

Conflict, peace, and security Culture, language, and identity Environmental and/or economic sustainability Equality and inequality Health and development Science, technology and society

Conflict, peace, and security

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Equality and inequality

Health and development

Science, technology and society

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• Making Meaningful Connections Use this worksheet to help you think about your research plans: the concepts or methods your will be using, the global topic you're focusing on, and the academic disciplines you will be using.

RRS (Researcher's Reflection Space)

• Sample Prompts for the WSEE RRS What should you write in your RRS? Use these questions and prompts to help you think through the various stages of the research for your WSEE: your initial ideas, your thoughts and reflections during the process, and your conclusions.
• RRS Example B - World Studies

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Check the Extended Essay guide for specific guidance on completing the various steps in the research and writing process of the EE, and  these documents:

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ZIS Sample Essays 2018

• Sample ZIS Extended Essays 2018 These ZIS student essays from 2018 scored either an A or B. Access is only given to anyone with the link at Zurich International School. Use them to analyse style and formatting as well to brainstorm ideas for topics. However, be aware that these are not research questions to be reused.

Extended Essay & RPPF Exemplars

• (Language B) Studies in language and literature: Punk music in the UK How did the punk movement influence certain aspects of the British culture did in the 20th century?
• (Language B) Language acquisition: Linguistic Strategies in the United States Presidential Election Debates 2016 How did the language used by Clinton and Trump in the first, the second and the third presidential debate influence the outcome of the 2016 presidential election in the United States?
• (Business management) To what extent is it a good idea for Escan ltd to end a strategic alliance with Qupid? To what extent is it a good idea for Escan ltd to end a strategic alliance with Qupid?
• (Information technology in a global society) The growing digital divide in financial markets To what extent has algorithmic trading led to an increased digital divide in financial markets?
• (Philosophy) Accidents in driverless cars What is the most appropriate ethical framework for the programming of driverless cars?
• (Social and cultural anthropology) An investigation of secondary education having an impact on divorce rates: a comparison between Caribbean-born women and African-American women Does secondary education have an impact on divorce rates: a comparison between Caribbean-born women and African-American women.
• (World religions) Christian and Islamic eschatology What do Islamic and Christian followers believe about the endtimes and how does each belief influence the religion?
• (Design Technology) Plants in modern architecture. The future of sustainability. To what extent could the implementation of plants in modern building design be a feasible method for future construction, to fight pollution and improve well-being in and around the building environment?
• (Literature and performance) The Perks of Being a Wallflower: A moving novel and a stigmatized film Why might Charlie's mental illness be portrayed differently in the movie adaptation of the Perks of Being a Wallflower than it is in the book?
• (Economics) The impact of demonetization on agriculture and farmers in Sultanganj To what extent has India's 2016 demonetization act impacted farmers, Kharif sale and Rabi sowing in Sultanganj?
• (Environmental systems and societies) Developing a model to evaluate the sustainability of marine turtle conservation organisations What are the criteria that may be used to evaluate the sustainability of marine turtle conservation projects and why?
• (Geography) The effects of transnational corporations on urban areas To what extent has the influx of technological and financial transnational corporations in the Grand Canal Dock area given rise to disparities between this and the Irishtown-Ringsend area?
• (Global politics) Violation of human rights: incompatibility of harmful traditional practices and human rights What are the major hindrances in Tanzania and Pakistan to the achievement of human rights and how can they be tackled?
• (History) Battle of Stalingrad To what extent did German tactical mistakes affect the outcome of the Battle of Stalingrad?
• (Philosophy) Artificial General Intelligence: a modern pursuit of the Platonic “good life” No stated research question
• (Psychology) The copycat effect: An analysis of suicides emulated from non-fictional and fictional media To what extent does the “copycat effect” explain similar suicide occurrences subsequent to mass media coverage on non-fictional and fictional suicides?
• (Biology) Effects of different calcium salts in growth solutions on the growth of the stems of basil (Ocimum basilicum) plants grown hydroponically What effects do different calcium salts in growth solutions have on the growth of the stems of basil (Ocimum basilicum) plants grown hydroponically?
• (Chemistry) An investigation into the synthesis of Aspirin in accordance with the principles of green chemistry To what extent can the industrial method of synthesis of aspirin be altered to best comply with the principles of green chemistry?
• (Computer science) An evaluation of malware How does the ILOVEYOU virus compare to the Koobface worm in terms of damage infliction and methods of duplication?
• (Physics) Aerodynamics What is the relationship between frequency and surface area against lift of the propeller of a toy helicopter?
• (Sports, exercise and health science) What can influence a better reaction time in martial artists? Does the warm-up of martial artists influence their reaction time in contrast to not warming up?
• (Mathematics) The use of hyperbolic cosine function in catenary bridge structure The analysis of the relationship between force and other variables in different bridge supporting scenarios.
• (Dance) Ballet Dance: The influence of choreographer George Balanchine on the style worldwide How has George Balanchine's creativity influenced the style of ballet dance worldwide?
• (Film) In depth study of Francis Ford Coppola’s The Outsiders (1983) and Stanley Kubrick’s A Clockwork Orange (1971) Sympathy in film: To what extent does the portrayal of graphic violence in film impart the ability to sympathize with real world situations?
• (Music) Sibelius' Seventh To what extent did Sibelius write his Seventh Symphony as a one movement compression of traditional symphonic form?
• (Theatre) Character Development Within Jason Robert Brown's The Last Five Years How do motifs, patterns and tones in Jason Robert Brown's The Last Five Years contribute to the character development and subtext throughout the musical?
• (Visual arts) Parallels in fashion To what extent did Japanese aesthetics and fashion have an influence on contemporary Danish fashion?
• (World Studies) Analyse the effects and impacts of the 2003 invasion of Iraq How and to what extent did the Iraq invasion and occupation between the years 2003 and 2005 impact the rise of radical Islamic terrorism?
• (Language and literature) Criticism towards expectations of masculinity and the idea of patriotism used in the Great War How does All Quiet on the Western Front reveal the expectations of masculinity and patriotism during the early 20th century?
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Philosophy Extended Essay

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