genetic engineering boon or bane essay

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USC Viterbi School of Engineering

Genetically Modified Crops: Boon or Bane?

About the Author: Ola Bant

Ola Bant studied at the University of Southern California in 2008.

Development of Genetically Modified Foods

The concept of heredity.

In the late 19th century, Gregor Mendel conducted the first genetic modification research and discovered the basic principles of inheritance. Known as the “father of modern genetics,” Mendel cultivated different types of pea plants and studied their modes of reproduction by cross-breeding purebred specimens. He learned that each physical characteristic of the plant originates from two units of heredity, one from each parent. He named those hereditary units “factors”, now known as genes.

Techniques of Genetic Manipulation

The first step of the transgenic process is the isolation of the bacteria’s entire DNA. The genomic sequence is then treated with a special enzyme that identifies the desired gene and cleaves it from the original DNA molecule. Next, the targeted gene is incorporated into a plasmid, a type of circular DNA molecule found in bacteria. The plasmid replicates independently, allowing it to propagate, creating many copies of the gene. Once the recombinant plasmid had been amplified, it is added to wounded leaf fragments on a growth media. A copy of the target gene is released from the plasmid and transferred to the plant cell, where it integrates into the plant’s DNA. The new plants grown from these cells contain the foreign bacterial gene (see Fig. 2 for GM technique steps). Once the cloned prototype is made, it can be commercially bred with great ease.

GM Foods Thus Far

In the 1970s, researchers first attempted to synthesize recombinant food products with the objective of improving crop protection [2]. More than 20 years passed until the first genetically engineered product, a tomato, was introduced to the U.S. market in 1994. In 1996, the first GM seeds were commercially cultivated. Today the United States harvests more than 50% of the global production of genetically modified foods including rice, maze, soybean, canola, and cottonseed [3].

The Advantages of Genetic Modification

Potential threats, the regulatory environment.

Since its initial development, the use of genetically modified food has been the subject of extensive global debate and controversy. Despite its significant benefits, public concern about its long-term health and environmental effects led many governments to establish mandatory labeling, traceability and prohibition regulations. However, governmental regulations on GM crop cultivation in the European Union (EU), the United States, and Africa vary greatly (see Fig. 4 for global crop production percentages).

[1] “Bread for the World.” Hunger Facts: International. Internet: http://www.bread.org/learn/hunger-basics/hunger-facts-international.html , August 17, 2008.
[2] World Health Organization. “20 Questions of Genetically Modified Foods.” Internet: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/ , October 10, 2008.
[3] D. Botelho, et. al. “The Introduction of Genetically Modified Food in the United States and the United Kingdom: A News Analysis.” The Social Science Journal , pp. 13, 2008.
[4] D. Nelson, et. al. “Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry.” New York, NY: W.H. Freeman & Co., 2005.
[5] GMO Compass. “Grocery Shopping.” Internet: http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/grocery_shopping/crops/ , October 12, 2008.
[6] J.V. Magalhaes, et al. “A gene in the multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) family confers aluminum tolerance in sorghum. ” Nature Genetics , vol. 39.9, pp. 1156-1161, 2007.
[7] Monsanto. “Input Traits – Roundup Ready Soybeans.” Internet: http://www.monsanto.com/monsanto/ag_products/input_traits/products/roundup_ready_soybeans.asp , October 13, 2008.
[8] M. Bohanec, et. al. “A Qualitative Multi-Atribute Model for Economic and Ecological Assessment of Genetically Modified Crops.” Ecological Modeling , pp. 247, 2008.
[9] K.M. Davies. “Genetic Modification of Plant Metabolism for Human Health Benefits.” Elsevier , pp. 122, 2007.
[10] D.D. Metcalfe. “Introduction: What Are the Issues in Addressing the Allergenic Potential of Genetically Modified Foods?” Environmental Health Perspectives , pp. 1110, June 2003.
[11] “Generically Engineered Crops and Foods: Regional Regulation and Prohibition.” The Center for Food Safety . Internet: http://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/pubs/Regional_Regs_Chart_6-2006.pdf , June 2006.
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Genetic Engineering Advantages & Disadvantages

Genetic engineering has pros and cons.

Table of Contents

Through genetic engineering, scientists are able to move desirable genes from one plant or animal to another or from a plant to an animal or vice versa. (Ref. 1) By desirable , it means it can produce an outcome that is regarded as generally “beneficial” or “useful”. The organism that has undergone such genetic modification is referred to as “ genetically modified organism ” or GMO. In essence, genetic engineering is a technology wherein a specific gene can be selected and implanted into the recipient organism. The cell that received such an implant can, therefore, begin producing substances with the desired functions. Genetic engineering uses recombinant DNA, molecular cloning, and transformation.

Genetic engineering has become a mainstream part of our lives because of the many advantages involved. Here are some of them:

Genetic engineering made it possible to create crop varieties regarded as “ more beneficial ”. Unlike selective breeding, modern genetic engineering is more gene-specific. One of the downsides of selective breeding is the possibility of generating traits that are less desirable. This is averted by modern genetic engineering that introduces specific genes. (Ref. 1) Since the process is rather straightforward, it is relatively faster than selective breeding (see previous tutorial ) in terms of coming up with crops with the desired traits. Examples of genetically-engineered plants with more desirable traits are drought-resistant plants, disease-resistant crops, plants that grow faster, and plants (e.g. legumes) fortified with more nutrients. (Ref.1, 2) The latter may be achieved by introducing genes that code for (1) trace-element-binding proteins, (2) overexpression of storage proteins already present, and/or (3) increased expression of proteins that are responsible for trace element uptake into plants. (Ref. 2)
Organisms can be ‘ tailor-made ’ to show desirable characteristics. Genes can also be manipulated in trees, for example, to absorb more CO 2 and reduce the threat of global warming. Through genetic engineering, genetic disorders may also be fixed by replacing the faulty gene with a functional gene. Disease-carrying insects, such as mosquitoes, may be engineered into becoming sterile insects. This will help in curbing the spread of certain diseases, e.g. malaria and dengue fever.
Genetic Engineering could increase genetic diversity and produce more variant alleles that could also be crossed over and implanted into other species. It is possible to alter the genetics of wheat plants to grow insulin as an example.Nevertheless, there are two sides to a coin. While genetic engineering is beneficial in ways mentioned above it is also implicated in certain eventualities deemed as “unpleasant” or disadvantageous.
There are concerns over the inadvertent effects, such as the creation of food that can cause an allergic reaction, GMO that can cause harmful genetic effects, and genes moving from one species to another that is not genetically engineered. (Ref. 1) It has been shown that GMO crop plants can pass the beneficial gene along to a wild population. An example is the sunflowers genetically-engineered to fend off certain insects. They were observed to have transferred the gene to their weedy relatives. (Ref. 3) Nature is an extremely complex interrelated chain. Some scientists believe that introducing genetically-modified genes may have an irreversible effect with consequences yet unknown.
Genetic engineering borderlines on many moral and ethical issues. One of the major questions raised is if humans have the right to manipulate the laws and course of nature.

Genetic engineering may be one of the greatest breakthroughs in recent history alongside the discovery of the atom and space flight. However, there are plausible risks involved. Thus, governments have produced legislation to control what sort of experiments are done involving genetic engineering.

Despite the strict regulation, genetic engineering progressed. It has led to many experimental breakthroughs over the years.

At the Roslin Institute in Scotland, scientists successfully cloned an exact copy of a sheep, named ‘Dolly’, in July 1996. This was the first successful artificial cloning of a mammal. (Ref. 4)
Scientists successfully manipulated the genetic sequence of a rat to grow a human ear on its back.

These procedures are essentially a form of “therapeutic cloning”. Embryonic cells can now be cloned. They are grown for health purposes, such as to obtain biological organs for transplantation. Cells are also cloned in the laboratory for research purposes. (Ref. 1) How about humans? Can a human individual be cloned? At this point in time, cloning a human individual is not possible. What can be cloned is the genotype but not the phenotype. (Ref. 4)

Genetic engineering has been made possible with the discovery of the complex and microscopic nature of DNA and its component nucleotides . For us to understand chromosomes and DNA more clearly, they can be mapped for future reference. More simplistic organisms such as fruit fly ( Drosophila ) have been chromosome-mapped due to their simplistic nature. They will require fewer genes to operate.

The process of genetic engineering involves splicing an area of a chromosome, a gene, that controls a certain characteristic of the body. The enzyme endonuclease is used to split a DNA sequence as well as split the gene from the rest of the chromosome. For example, this gene may be programmed to produce an antiviral protein. This gene is removed and can be placed into another organism. For example, it can be placed into a bacterial cell where it can be sealed into the DNA chain using ligase. When the chromosome is once again sealed the bacterial cell is now effectively re-programmed to replicate this new antiviral protein. The bacterium can continue to live a healthy life while genetic engineering by human intervention has manipulated it to produce the protein.

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Use this quiz to test how broadly the students know about the benefits and the risks of genetic engineering.

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References:.

Genetically engineered foods: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. (2020). Medlineplus.Gov. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002432.htm
Lönnerdal, B. (May 2003). Genetically Modified Plants for Improved Trace Element Nutrition. J. Nutr. 133:1490S-1493S.https://www.biologyonline.com/articles/genetically-modified-plants-improved
Ohio State University. (2002). Genetically Modified Crops May Pass Helpful Traits To Weeds, Study Finds – Biology Online Archive Article. Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online. https://www.biologyonline.com/articles/genetically-modified-crops-may
Ayala, F. J. (2015). Cloning humans? Biological, ethical, and social considerations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 112 (29), 8879–8886. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1501798112

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ROS generation in plants: Boon or bane?

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Published 1 March 2009
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Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology

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Genetic Engineering: Boon and Bane

Last updated on July 4, 2024 by ClearIAS Team

Along with the discovery of the atom and space travel, genetic engineering might have been one of the biggest scientific achievements in recent memory. It is the science or activity of changing the genetic structure of an animal, plant, or other organism to make it stronger or more suitable for a particular purpose. Read here to know more about its applications, advantages, and concerns.

Genetic engineering has been used in research and business to produce cancer treatments, brewing yeasts, and genetically altered plants, and animals, among other things. Over time, genetic engineering has evolved beyond laboratory cloning for analysis to completely synthetic biology for novel biomedical capabilities.

An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be genetically modified (GM) and the resulting entity is a genetically modified organism (GMO).

Through tests involving tracking, expression, a gain of function, and loss of function, GMOs are utilized in research to study gene function and expression. It is feasible to generate animal models of human diseases by deleting the genes causing specific ailments.

Hereditary engineering offers the potential to treat genetic illnesses through gene therapy in addition to manufacturing hormones, vaccinations, and other medications. The same methods used to make pharmaceuticals can also be utilized in industrial settings to make enzymes for cheese, laundry detergent, and other items.

Table of Contents

What is genetic engineering?

Genetic engineering, often known as genetic alteration or modification, or manipulation, is a technique that modifies an organism’s DNA using technology developed in labs.

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This could entail altering a single base pair (A-T or C-G), erasing a section of DNA, or incorporating new DNA.

For instance, transferring a gene from one species to an organism from a different species in genetic engineering may result in the desired characteristic.

It may also mean extracting DNA from another organism’s genome and combining it with the DNA of that individual.

Insulin for diabetic patients is the most well-known example of genetic engineering.

Genetic engineering has been used to produce a type of insulin, very similar to our own, from yeast and bacteria like E.coli .
This genetically modified insulin, ‘Humulin’ was licensed for human use in 1982.

The genetic engineering process of insulin production:

A small piece of circular DNA called a plasmid is extracted from the bacteria or yeast cell.
A small section is then cut out of the circular plasmid by restriction enzymes, which are known as molecular scissors.
The gene for human insulin is inserted into the gap in the plasmid. This plasmid is now genetically modified.
The genetically modified plasmid is introduced into a new bacteria or yeast cell.
This cell then divides rapidly and starts making insulin.
To create large amounts of the cells, the genetically modified bacteria or yeast are grown in large fermentation vessels that contain all the nutrients they need. The more the cells divide, the more insulin is produced.
When fermentation is complete, the mixture is filtered to release the insulin.
The insulin is then purified and packaged into bottles and insulin pens for distribution to patients with diabetes.

History of genetic engineering

Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first GMO in 1973 using a microbe.
When Rudolf Jaenisch put foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974, he produced the first GM animal.
Genentech, the first business to concentrate on genetic engineering, was established in 1976 and began producing human proteins.
Human insulin that had been genetically modified was created in 1978, and microorganisms that generate insulin were commercialized in 1982.
Since the introduction of the Flavr Savr tomato in 1994, genetically modified food has been available for purchase. The Flavr Savr was created to last longer, whereas the majority of modern GM crops have been altered to become more resistant to pesticides and herbicides.
The first GMO created specifically as a pet, called GloFish, went on sale in the US in December 2003.
In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold.

Advantages of genetic engineering

Developing crops with the required qualities has been made possible through genetic engineering.
GM crops like Bt Cotton are drought, disease, and pest resistant with more nutrients.
By swapping out the malfunctioning gene for a functional gene, genetic engineering may potentially be used to treat hereditary illnesses.
To create biological organs for transplantation, embryonic cells are cloned in a procedure known as therapeutic cloning.
Economically most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers.

Concerns and Challenges

Genetic engineering has been objected to on the grounds of ethical, ecological, and economic concerns.

Concern about the impact of GM crops on the environment and natural processes, in the long run, has been at the forefront.
Ethical issues like patenting of life forms and controlling food intake have been raised.
The concern of resistant plants giving rise to superweeds and their impact on non-target organisms.

Applications of genetic engineering

Numerous industries, including science, health, industrial biotechnology, and agriculture, have used genetic engineering.

In plants, genetic engineering has been applied to improve the resilience, nutritional value, and growth rate of crops such as potatoes, tomatoes, and rice.
In animals, it has been used to develop sheep that produce a therapeutic protein in their milk that can be used to treat cystic fibrosis or worms that glow in the dark to allow scientists to learn more about diseases such as Alzheimer’s .
Manufacturing of drugs
Creation of model animals that mimic human conditions
Germline Gene therapy
Xenotransplantation
Human growth hormones
Follicle-stimulating hormones
Human albumin
Monoclonal antibodies
Antihemophilic factors

Agriculture

Genetically modified crops
Genetically modified livestock

Crops have been designed to boost output, increase resistance to abiotic stressors, change the nutritional content of food, or provide new goods.

Research and development

Transgenic organisms are one of the most crucial instruments for analyzing gene function, and genetic engineering is a valuable tool for natural scientists.
It is possible to insert genes and other genetic material from a variety of creatures into bacteria for storage and modification, resulting in genetically altered bacteria.
To understand the roles played by particular genes, organisms are genetically modified. These tests often involve tracking, expression, loss of function, and gain of function.

Industrial application

Biomaterials
Synthetic chemicals
Gene regulatory network
Protein engineering
Vaccine production
Biomining and Bioremediation
Genetically modified virus as a scaffold for assembling environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery.

The management of natural areas and conservation could both benefit from genetic engineering.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of GMOs.

In India, the regulators are Institutional Biosafety Committee, Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation, and Genetic Engineering Approval Committee.

Way forward

The good side of genetic engineering needs to be promoted with appropriate checks and balances. From a research point of view, more studies need to be conducted to address the concerns of allergic and immune responses to GM food on a case-by-case basis.

There is still immense potential to explore in the field like leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) for advancements in biological sciences. Genomic data can be developed more which will help in the development of biomedical sciences and viral sciences.

The regulations need to refine more especially concerning labeling, ethical concerns, false advertising, etc.

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Genetic Engineering – A Boon Or Bane

Genetic engineering, being a modern technology, has its own pros and cons. It is very important to have the knowledge of genetic engineering and its various methods, which has social and biological impact on the environment and biodiversity. Seeing the genetic engineering practices in this perspective and analyzing the legality of such methods or practices is essential in this modern world. This is a very important aspect which has to be looked into while deciding upon whether the practices of genetic engineering, practiced extremely in this modern world, is a boon or bane for the mankind, environment and biodiversity on the whole and to a large extent.

WHAT IS GENETIC ENGINEERING?

Genetic engineering is the group of applied techniques and biotechnology used to cut up and join together genetic material and especially DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid), from one or more species of organism and to introduce the result into an organism in order to change one or more of its characteristics.

Genetic engineering practices are used to produce an organism of the desired characteristics. It can be practiced among various living organisms including humans, animals, plants and trees. On July 5, 1996, Dolly the sheep—the first mammal to have been successfully cloned from an adult cell—was born at the Roslin Institute in Scotland. The first genetically modified crop, an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant, was produced in 1982. China was the first country to commercialize transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992.

GENETIC ENGINEERING AND THE BIODIVERSITY

Genetic engineering practices in animals.

Genetic engineering in animals have been practiced in various ways on various organisms in order to obtain the desired genetically modified organism. This includes adding gene from insect killing bacteria to cotton so that it kills the insects eating cotton, producing genetically engineered moths that infect their relatives so that they all die and won’t destroy crops, inserting spider gene into that of goat helps in producing milk that contain tiny strands of spider milk which can be made into a strong stretchy rope. Along with this the scientists have started creating hybrid creature of humans and animals. Adding to this, British scientists claim to have cloned the first human embryo.

On one hand it helps in increasing resistance, productivity, hardiness, and feed efficiency; better yields of meat, eggs and milk; improved animal health; desired characteristics; to have a disease free, non-disabled, healthy child without any genetic disabilities or diseases; to increase the immunity and correct the defects.

On the other hand, it has major disadvantages. Ethically, it violates the natural organisms’ intrinsic values. It tampers the nature with mixing genes among species. It increases the stress level among the animals. There is also huge risk that even a slight mistake can produce an entirely different undesired, new characteristics and physical disabilities or defects which are difficult to be treated among animals. Economically, this practice would discriminate poor from rich, who are financially able to obtain the desired charactered offspring. There are possibilities of causing allergic reaction, unknown health concerns for humans and destruction of natural ecosystems, new disease being introduced. There are chances of replacing important gene instead of mutated gene which would increase the complication. This reduces the genetic diversity and makes organisms susceptible to simple diseases. It can also make humans or organism toxic to one another. Thus, it harms the balance in ecosystem.

Genetic engineering practices in plants

Genetic modifications in plants helps in improving nutritional value of food, increases crop production, supply and thus increases farmers income. It creates a safer environment due to decreased use of pesticides and hence improves the quality of ground and surface water with less pesticide and residues. Its quality and taste increase and take less time to ripen. It improves the crop resistance to disease, pests and herbicides. Use of bioherbicides and bioinsecticides are environment friendly, thus contributes to better natural waste management. The crops develop stronger tolerance to certain whether conditions and environmental issues like drought, extreme cold etc. Economically, due to increase in production, it will be available in the market for a reasonable price and thus decreases the rate of poverty through starvation. It can also make certain food to last longer than normal. It increases the possibility of growing more food in a small area.

This practice equally contributes to the cons among the biodiversity. There are high chances of the crops being toxic if they are genetically modified on a regular basis. It can cause allergic reaction, could harm environment by impacting insects, birds, mammals, waters etc. There are possibilities that the food companies conduct their own tests and not the FDA. Ethically, some may also feel it as disrespecting god by modifying his creation. GM (genetically modified) food could cause abnormal conditions for those suffering from chronic illness. Some GM ingredients can also cause cancer as stated by Dr. Stanley Ewan “food and water contaminated with genetic engineering material could increase the growth of malignant tumor”. It may also cause allergy in humans as that caused by GM soyabean containing “Brazilian protein”. Some toxins which originate during GM, if expressed in plant nectar and pollen, may disrupt pollination. This way again genetic engineering causes imbalance in the ecosystem. There are possibilities of this practice being used for illegal and unnatural activities like creation of new creature. This may exploit the biodiversity.

LEGALITY OF GENETIC ENGINEERING PRACTICES

The following are some of the laws in various countries which regarding the adoption of genetic engineering practices:

According to Canada Food and Drugs Act, it has mandated to assess the safety of foods for human consumption, including GMO in foodstuff, and for authorizing it to be sold. Advertising or labeling the presence of GMOs in particular food is voluntary unless there is a health or safety concern.

United Sates

According to US Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service under the Plant Protection Act; GMOs in food, drugs and biological products are regulated by the Food and Drug administration under Federal Food, Drug and cosmetic act and the public health service act.

European union

According to GMO legislation of Europe, while marketing and importing GMOs are regulated at EU level, the cultivation of GMOs is left to EU members who have the right to prohibit or restrict the sale or cultivation of approved GMOs based on adverse effects on health and the environment.

GMOs in Argentina is regulated by general law on Seeds and Phytogenetic Creations and the law on the Development and Production of Modern Biotechnology. It is intended to promote the efficient production and marketing of crops by providing farmers the assurances as to the identity and quality of seeds that they acquire while producing GM crops.

Bt cotton is the only GM crop allowed in India. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India declared that the GM food is not permitted to be sold in India because they do not have approval under FSSAI, 2006.

Genetic engineering can be considered as a boon when it comes to the large amount of advantages it provides and the regulations passed in various countries to ensure the safety of the same, but at the same time we have to consider the consequences of it as well. In this perspective, instead of developing a lot, out of greed and facing a irreversible damages, it is better to improve the existing situation naturally like concentration on improving the soil fertility, creating the suitable environment which ensure more production and less damage etc. This will ensure environmental friendliness as well.

References-

1. A brief summary of genetic engineering and animals, Andrew B. Perzigian, https://www.animallaw.info/article/brief-summary-genetic-engineering-and-animals . 2. Genetic engineering, Muhammad Iqbal Khan, https://www.slideshare.net/iqbal1313/genetic-engineering-25050577 . 3. Genetic engineering and development of transgenic plants, L.N. Nisha, https://www.slideshare.net/NishaNepoleon/genetic-engineering-and-development-of-transgenic-plants . 4. Restrictions on genetically modified organisms: United States, https://www.loc.gov/law/help/restrictions-on-gmos/usa.php . 5. Restrictions on genetically modified organisms, https://www.loc.gov/law/help/restrictions-on-gmos/index.php .

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Genetic Engineering: Boon or Bane?

With any radical technology, anxiety, ethical and moral objections to genetic engineering proliferate. Some are well-grounded and advise caution; others are the product of misinformation, religious bigotry, or madness. Religious objections assume the existence of some creator whose will is defied by genetic engineering, and secular objections assume that life in its “natural” state, unaltered by human intention, I inviolable because of its inherent dignity. 1 One of the biggest concerns of genetic engineering is that should we determine our evolutionary future?

Have we reached such a peak of humanity that we can create and modify lives without fear of exploitation, abuse or neglect? Perhaps. There has caused a great hullabaloo over genetic engineering. Some advocate it, saying that, in time, scientists may be able to remove from the cell certain sections of the chromosome that contains genes that are defective and replace them, thereby refurbishing or repairing the cell. This would prevent parents from passing on to children genetically transmitted diseases.

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At the present stage of this new experimental process, such manipulation of the human cell is becoming more evitable. I see modification of the genome as the ‘Jenny-out-of-the bottle. ‘ It cannot be unlearned. Science is an ever forward science. It looks back only to see where it went wrong and learn from that. Science is a discipline that will not and cannot be stopped. The quest to ‘know is innate in the human species. Human cloning has become one of the most controversial debates about reproduction in Western civilization.

Human cloning represents asexual reproduction, but the critics of human cloning argue that the result of cloning is not a new individual who is genetically unique. There is also awareness in the scientific community, including the medical community, that human cloning and the creation of clones are inevitable. Psychology and other social sciences, together with the natural sciences, will need to find ways to help the healthcare system, to be prepared to face the new challenges introduced by the techniques of human cloning. Since the development of powerful microscopes that allow men to probe deeper into the world of life, the cell, and to see features that they never before knew existed, some researchers and psychologists and even philosophers have theorized that men may be able to ascertain the complete genetic code, even the “secret of life. ” They extend their suppositions, even conjecturing that, y genetic manipulation; we will be able to treat successfully or even cure hereditary diseases and defects and, conceivably, make a race having superior bodies, aptitude and intelligence. The question is will genetic engineering advance the human race?

This is a matter I would be troubled with. Do we want ‘super humans’ in amidst of so- called less ‘sopped up’ human race? I would be apprehensive with how a mixed society of mankind would be able to intermingle. I am not suggesting I take a stand against it, rather, we need to anticipate the effect and be prepared to modulate and acclimatize them. There are moral implications that we should consider carefully. First, ethical concerns, religious and secular, about the intrinsic morality or immorality of genetic engineering; second, the potential prescient or damning consequences of genetic engineering and where it will lead.

This potential for genetic engineering of enhancements to complex human traits has been the subject of vigorous debate from physician, clerics, scientists and even philosophers for a number of years. Most of the debate has centered on the possible moral and ethical consequences of pursuing enhancements, especially those that might affect alliterated behaviors and components of personality. Much is in lay to be found on the actual method of implementing this technology. This is a ‘thought experiment’ about the likely form of final preclinical testing for a technology to enhance intelligence as a prototypical multiplex trait.

The significance and the potential dangers of implementing enhancements in humans, especially the highly valued traits such as intelligence, would mandate a meticulous and methodical program of testing in lower forms human primates. 3 Finally, bioengineering has the potential to transform our lives in many positive ways. Dismissing this new technology on the ground that it is aberrant or innately immoral is unwarranted and seems to be based on little more than an intuitive adverse reaction. To simply suggest we will develop a society of ‘machines’ is simply gibberish and complete nonsense.

Biotechnology is an expression of already well-established techniques. There are risks involved with this new technology, but provided that it is appropriately regulated, its positive benefits will exceed dreams of a well addressed society. It would be a mistake to employ set of laws that disproportionately restrict implementation of genetic engineering. Existing machinery that ensures the safety of testing code of behavior should be adequate for somatic genetic psychoanalysis for humans. As we attend the progression of indubitably new and expansive gears of protection will be set in place.

Gremlin modification for humans should not be absolutely prohibited, definitely not in advance of their accessibility. Given the special risks created by human gremlin alterations, each proposed modification needs to be carefully assessed and evaluated, not simply with respect to direct benefits and harms, but also regarding the effects that the proposed alteration would eave on our collective structure and the allocation of society. Some have compared genetic engineering to the discharging all the ills of humankind into the world.

If legendary and mythological similarities are appropriate, an appropriate comparison to the gift of fire from Prometheus would be applicable: genetic engineering can provide enormous benefits provided it is used cautiously, prudently and carefully. 4 The book Rationality and the Genetic Challenge discusses the ethics of human genetic modification and the bioethics rationalities that inform the different ethical conclusions. It is aimed at correcting the belief that “only one rationality exists or one morality exists; that those that disagree [with them] are unreasonable or evil. HГyr argues that there are multiple rationalities, and that even though ethical issues may have solutions within individual rationalities, disagreements that have their root in separate rational approaches cannot be universally solved by intellectual arguments. In debates about the ethics of using new biotechnologist to genetically modify human beings, the normal state is one of fundamental disagreement over almost all f the anticipated uses to which the technology could be put.

HГyr point is that such a state of affairs is not necessarily due to a lack of reason because there are many, equally valid, ways of being reasonable. 5 Most of us have heard the term ‘designer baby’. The term invokes images of couples with a catalogue gathering and selecting features, characteristics and traits one at a time; intelligence, sex, eye and hair color, height, various talents. The idea is equally exciting and terrifying and rife with ethical issues.

The term ‘designer baby’ is really incorrect or inappropriate, a loser term might be ‘selected baby’. The scientific truth is far removed from the media passion. You can select, off the shelf, an embryo with the right chromosomes to produce the child of your chosen sex or have the embryo screened for a possible inherited genetic disorder, everything else is pure conjecture. As our technical abilities progress, citizens will have to cope with the ethical implications of designer babies, and governments will have to define a regulatory course.

We will have to respond to some elemental questions: How much power should parents and doctors have over the design of their children? How much power should governments have over parents and doctors? These decisions should be made based on facts and on our social beliefs. The debate is certainly fired with intensity on both sides. People have been in search of the ability to create ‘designer babies’ for some time. Character and trait selection hasn’t always been done using scientifically proven methods but it has been around for as long as the human race has been procreating.

In many respects human nature seeks to choose those characteristics which we find most attractive, we choose the partner we wish to breed with, someone who has the eaters we like, someone we approve of, has traits or characteristics we desire in our children. Now this process does not necessarily takes place on a wholly conscious level but let’s not fool ourselves into thinking it all pure chance. In prosperous societies we have few misgivings about transforming ourselves whether it is desires or happiness. Why is it so strange that we should desire to fill our offspring with such things?

The protagonist argues that whatever techniques are available to help prevent certain genetic diseases will protect children from suffering debilitating diseases and deformities. If we want the best for our children, why shouldn’t we use the technology? The majority of techniques accessible today can only be used by parents who need the help of fertility clinics to have children; shouldn’t they be entitled to a healthy one? A great many naturally conceived embryos are rejected from the womb for defects; by screening embryos, we are doing what nature would normally do for us.

Imagine the reaction nowadays if organ transplantation were to be forbidden or even legally prohibited because it is “unnatural”–even though that is what some people called for when transplantation was a medical novelty. It is hard to see how the replacement of a defective gene is any less “natural” than the replacement of a defective organ. The major difference is the entirely beneficial one that medical intervention need occur only once around the time of conception, and the benefits would be inherited by the child and its descendants.

I think a child with greater capacities to improve human society would be accredit to man. Over time, all of these means of genetic change have resulted in the current form of humans. The process of mutation, responsible for the emergence of genetic diseases, is also the underlying mechanism of evolution. Evolution is the process of genetic change over time, as some of these changes result in a fitter version of the species more apt to survive than others, and these advantageous traits are then passed on to succeeding generations. Then there are the antagonist who would argue once we start down the ‘slippery slope’ of eliminating embryos because they are diseased, what is to stop us from picking babies for their physical or psychological traits? There is always the looming shadow of eugenics… That included forced sterilizations, selective breeding, and racial hygiene. There are major social concerns–such as: will we breed a race of super humans who look down on those without genetic enhancements? Will these new technologies only be available to the wealthy–resulting in a lower class that will still suffer from inherited diseases and disabilities?

Will discrimination against people already born with disabilities increase if they are perceived as genetically inferior? Tampering with the human genetic structure might actually have unintended and unpredictable consequences that could damage the gene pool. Many of the procedures related to designing babies involve terminating embryos; any disapprove of this on moral and religious grounds. 7 Here we would employ the ethical advantages and disadvantages on a rigorous and meticulous standard. Certainly, compassion, empathy and understanding need be externalities.

What was once so deeply disturbing now seems to many people Just another part of the modern world. Will the same be said one day of children with genetically enhanced intelligence, endurance, and other traits? Or will such attempts-?if they occur at all-? lead to extraordinary problems that are looked back upon as the ultimate in twenty- iris century hubris? (Stock, 2006. ) Soon we may be altering the genes of our children to engineer key aspects of their character and physiology. The ethical and social consequences will be profound.

We are standing at the threshold of an extraordinary, yet troubling, scientific dawn that has the potential to alter the very fabric of our lives, challenging what it means to be human, and perhaps redesigning our very selves. We are fast approaching the most consequential technological threshold in all of human history: the ability to alter the genes we pass to our children. Finally, the problems of religion with all its factions and divisions could be eliminated. We could genetically produce a society of humans with morals that would supersede any paranormal holy book.

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Essay on Genetically Modified Crops Boon Or Bane

Students are often asked to write an essay on Genetically Modified Crops Boon Or Bane in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Genetically Modified Crops Boon Or Bane

What are genetically modified crops.

Genetically modified crops, or GM crops, are plants used in agriculture with DNA changed by scientists. This is not natural and doesn’t happen on its own. Scientists do this to make the plants grow better under tough conditions like bad weather, diseases, or pests. Think of it like giving the plants superpowers to help them survive and grow stronger.

The Good Side of GM Crops

GM crops can be really helpful. They can grow in places where food is needed the most. These crops can resist bugs, need less pesticide, and sometimes even have more vitamins. This means farmers can grow more food to feed more people.

The Worries About GM Crops

Some people are worried about GM crops. They think changing the plants’ DNA might not be safe for us or the environment. There are questions like, will these changes harm other plants or animals? Or, can eating GM foods make people sick? These concerns make people cautious.

Conclusion: Boon or Bane?

Genetically modified crops can be a boon, helping us grow more food. But they can also be a bane if not checked for safety. It’s important to study them well to make sure they’re good for us and our planet before using them a lot.

250 Words Essay on Genetically Modified Crops Boon Or Bane

GM crops can be a blessing. They can grow in dry or salty land and can help feed more people. Farmers can also use fewer chemicals to kill pests because some GM crops can protect themselves from insects. This means the crops can be healthier for people to eat and better for the environment.

On the other hand, some people are worried about GM crops. They think changing the plants’ genes might not be safe for our health in the long run. Also, these crops might harm insects that are good for nature, like bees. There is also fear that big companies that make GM seeds could control farmers, making it hard for them to grow traditional crops.

In the end, GM crops have both good and bad points. They can help us grow more food and protect the environment, but we also need to make sure they are safe and that farmers have the freedom to choose what they grow. It’s important to keep studying and talking about GM crops to find the best way to use them.

500 Words Essay on Genetically Modified Crops Boon Or Bane

Introduction to genetically modified crops.

Genetically modified crops, often called GM crops, are plants used in agriculture which have had their DNA changed using genetic engineering. This is done to give them new traits like resistance to pests, tolerance to herbicides, or improved nutritional content. Many people debate whether GM crops are good or bad, and this essay will look at both sides of the story.

Benefits of GM Crops

One of the biggest advantages of GM crops is their ability to fight off bugs and weeds that harm plants. For example, some GM crops can resist certain insects, so farmers do not need to use as many chemicals to protect them. This can lead to a cleaner environment and safer food. Another positive point is that GM crops can be changed to survive in tough weather conditions, like drought or extreme heat, which means we can grow food in places where it’s hard to farm.

Concerns About GM Crops

On the other side, there are worries about GM crops. Some people are scared that changing the genes of plants could cause allergies or health issues. They also fear that GM crops might harm the environment. For example, if a plant is made to resist a certain bug, that bug might evolve to become even stronger, which could cause more problems.

There is also the concern about the seeds from GM crops. These seeds are often controlled by big companies, and farmers have to buy new seeds every year. Some people think this is not fair and that it could make it hard for small farmers to make a living.

GM Crops and the Environment

The effect of GM crops on the environment is a hot topic. Supporters say that because GM crops can be made to resist pests and diseases, farmers can use fewer chemicals, which is better for the land and water around the farms. But critics argue that these crops might cross with wild plants and create “super weeds” that are hard to control.

In conclusion, GM crops have their good points and bad points. They can help us grow more food and protect the environment, but they also come with risks and moral questions. It is important for scientists, farmers, and the public to work together to make sure that the way we use GM crops is safe and fair for everyone. As we continue to learn and improve the technology, we might find even better ways to use GM crops for the benefit of all.

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Genetic Engineering: Boon or Bane? Essay Example

Pages: 8 (2034 words)
Published: July 28, 2018
Type: Essay

Some are well-grounded and advise caution; others re the product of misinformation, religious bigotry, or madness. Religious objections assume the existence of some creator whose will is defied by genetic engineering and secular objections assume that life in its "natural" state, unaltered by human intention, inviolable because of its inherent dignity.

One of the biggest concerns of genetic engineering is that should we determine our evolutionary future? Have we reached such a peak of humanity that we can create and modify lives without fear of exploitation, abuse or neglect? Perhaps.

There has caused a great hullabaloo over genetic engineering. Some advocate it, saying that, in time, scientists may be able to remove from the cell certain sections of the chromosome that contains genes that are defective and replace them, thereby refurbishi

ng or repairing the cell. This would prevent parents from passing on to children genetically transmitted diseases. At the present stage of this new experimental process, such manipulation of the human cell is becoming more evitable. See modification of the genome as the 'jenny-out-of-the bottle. ' It cannot be unlearned. Science is an ever forward science.

It looks back only to see where t went wrong and learn from that. Science is a discipline that will not and cannot be stopped. The quest to 'know' is innate in the human species. Human cloning has become one of the most controversial debates about reproduction in Western civilization. Human cloning represents asexual reproduction, but the critics of human cloning argue that the result of cloning is not a new individual who is genetically unique. There is also awareness in the scientific community, including the medical community,

that human cloning and the creation of clones are inevitable.

Psychology and other social sciences, together with the natural sciences, will need to find ways to help the healthcare system, to be prepared to face the new challenges introduced by the techniques of human cloning. 2 Since the development of powerful microscopes that allow men to probe deeper into the world Of life, the cell, and to see features that they never before knew existed, some researchers and psychologists and even philosophers have theorized that men may be able to ascertain the complete genetic code, even the "secret of life. They extend their suppositions, even conjecturing that, by genetic manipulation; e will be able to treat successfully or even cure hereditary diseases and defects and, conceivably, make a race having superior bodies, aptitude and intelligence. The question is will genetic engineering advance the human race? This is a matter I would be troubled with. Do we want 'super humans' in amidst of so-called less 'sopped up' human race? I would be apprehensive with how a mixed society of mankind would be able to intermingle. M not suggesting take a stand against it, rather, we need to anticipate the effect and be prepared to modulate and acclimatize them. There are moral implications that we should consider carefully. First, ethical concerns, religious and secular, about the intrinsic morality or immorality of genetic engineering; second, the potential prescient or damning consequences of genetic engineering and where it will lead. This potential for genetic engineering of enhancements to complex human traits has been the subject of vigorous debate from physician, clerics, scientists and even philosophers for a number Of

Most of the debate has centered on the possible moral and ethical consequences of pursuing enhancements, especially those that sight affect multifaceted behaviors and components of personality. Much is in lay to be found on the actual method of implementing this technology. This is a ;thought experiment about the likely form of final preclinical testing for a technology to enhance intelligence as a prototypical multiplex trait.

The significance and the potential dangers of implementing enhancements in humans, especially the highly valued traits such as intelligence, would mandate a meticulous and methodical program of testing in lower forms human primates. 3 Finally, bioengineering has the potential to transform our lives in many costive ways. Dismissing this new technology on the ground that it is aberrant or innately immoral is unwarranted and seems to be based on little more than an intuitive adverse reaction. To simply suggest we will develop a society of 'machines' is simply gibberish and complete nonsense.

Biotechnology is an expression of already well-established techniques. There are risks involved with this new technology, but provided that it is appropriately regulated, its positive benefits will exceed dreams of a well addressed society. It would be a mistake to employ set of laws that supportability restrict implementation of genetic engineering. Existing machinery that ensures the safety of testing code of behavior should be decade Tate for somatic genetic psychoanalysis for humans. As we attend the progression of indubitably new and expansive gears of protection will be set in place.

Gremlin modification for humans should not be absolutely prohibited, definitely not in advance of their accessibility. Given the special risks created by human gremlin alterations, each

proposed modification needs to be carefully assessed and evaluated, not simply with respect to erect benefits and harms, but also regarding the effects that the proposed alteration would have on our collective structure and the allocation of society. Some have compared genetic engineering to the discharging all the ills of humankind into the world.

If legendary and mythological similarities are appropriate, an appropriate comparison to the gift of fire from Prometheus would be applicable: genetic engineering can provide enormous benefits provided it is used cautiously, prudently and carefully. 4 The book Rationality and the Genetic Challenge discusses the ethics of human genetic modification ND the bioethics rationalities that inform the different ethical conclusions. It is aimed at correcting the belief that "only one rationality exists or one morality exists; that those that disagree [with them] are unreasonable or evil. HГyr argues that there are multiple rationalities, and that even though ethical issues may have solutions within individual rationalities, disagreements that have their root in separate rational approaches cannot be universally solved by intellectual arguments. In debates about the ethics of using new biotechnologist to genetically modify human beings, the normal Tate is one of fundamental disagreement over almost all of the anticipated uses to which the technology could be put.

HГyear's point is that such a state of affairs is not necessarily due to a lack of reason because there are many, equally valid, ways of being reasonable. 5 Most of us have heard the term 'designer baby. The term invokes images of couples with a catalogue gathering and selecting features, characteristics and traits one at a time; intelligence, sex, eye and hair color, height,

various talents. The idea is equally exciting and terrifying and rife with ethical issues.

The term 'designer baby' is ally incorrect or inappropriate, a closer term might be 'selected baby'. The scientific truth is far removed from the media passion. You can select, off the shelf, an embryo with the right chi Romeos to produce the child of your chosen sex or have the embryo screened for a possible inherited genetic disorder, everything else is pure conjecture. As our technical abilities progress, citizens will have to cope with the ethical implications of designer babies, and governments will have to define a regulatory course.

We will have to respond to some elemental questions: How much power should parents ND doctors have over the design of their children? How much power should governments have over parents and doctors? These decisions should be made based on facts and on our social beliefs. The debate is certainly fired with intensity on both sides. People have been in search of the ability to create 'designer babies' for some time. Character and trait selection hasn't always been done using scientifically proven methods but it has been around for as long as the human race has been procreating.

In many respects human nature seeks to choose those characteristics which we find most attractive, e choose the partner we wish to breed with, someone who has the features we like, someone we approve of, has traits or characteristics we desire in our children. Now this process does not necessarily takes place on a wholly conscious level but let's not fool ourselves into thinking it all pure chance. In prosperous societies we have few

misgivings about transforming ourselves whether it is desires or happiness. Why is it so strange that we should desire to fill our offspring with such things?

The protagonist argues that whatever techniques are available to help prevent certain genetic diseases will protect hillier from suffering debilitating diseases and deformities. If we want the best for our children, why shouldn't we use the technology? The majority of techniques accessible today can only be used by parents who need the help of fertility clinics to have children; shouldn't they be entitled to a healthy one? A great many naturally conceived embryos are rejected from the womb for defects; by screening embryos, we are doing what nature would normally do for us.

Imagine the reaction nowadays if organ transplantation were to be forbidden or even legally prohibited because it is "unnatural"--even though hat is what some people called for when transplantation was a medical novelty. It is hard to see how the replacement of a defective gene is any less "natural" than the replacement of a defective organ. The major difference is the entirely beneficial one that medical intervention need occur only once around the time of conception, and the benefits would be inherited by the child and its descendants.

fitter version of the species more apt to survive than others, and these advantageous traits are then passed on to succeeding generations. Then there are the antagonist who would argue once we start down the 'slippery slope' of eliminating embryos because they are diseased, what is to stop us from picking babies for their physical or psychological traits? There is always the looming shadow of eugenics... Hat included forced sterilizations, selective breeding, and racial hygiene. There are major social concerns--such as: will we breed a race of super humans who look down on those without genetic enhancements? Will these new technologies only be available to the wealthy--resulting in a lower class that will still suffer from inherited diseases and disabilities?

Will discrimination against people already born with disabilities increase if they are perceived as genetically inferior? Tampering with the human genetic structure might actually have unintended and unpredictable consequences that could damage the gene pool. Many of the procedures related to designing babies involve terminating embryos; many disapprove of this on moral and religious grounds. 7 Here we would employ the ethical advantages and disadvantages on a rigorous and meticulous standard. Certainly, compassion, empathy and understanding need be externalities.

What was once so deeply disturbing now seems to many people just another part of the modern world. Will the same be said one day of children with genetically enhanced intelligence, endurance, and other traits? Or will such attempts-?if they occur at all-?lead to extraordinary problems that are looked back upon s the ultimate in twenty-first century hubris? (Stock, 2006. ) Soon we may be altering the genes of our children to engineer key aspects of

their character and physiology. The ethical and social consequences will be profound.

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Health Information Technology

Bane or boon.

Jacobson, Joy

As some nurses campaign against HIT, others promote ‘high touch–high tech’ care.

“A computer can never do what I do. I FEEL.”

This anonymous comment, left on a blog post about older nurses alienated by technologically savvy younger nurses, speaks to a seemingly irreconcilable rift in nursing: the hands-on comfort that a nurse provides opposite the information that technology makes available in most clinical settings.

Earlier this year National Nurses United (NNU), the largest U.S. union representing RNs, launched a campaign opposed to what it called the “unchecked proliferation of unproven medical technology.” The campaign has focused, in part, on the automated clinical decision support (CDS) systems that are built into the electronic health record (EHR) at many institutions. (CDS provides best-practice protocols for care given to individual patients.) Decrying the use of “computers that diagnose and dictate treatment,” as an NNU press release puts it, the union acknowledges that such technologies may cut costs but can also “supplant” clinical judgment, leading to costly, and sometimes deadly, medical error.

As a part of the campaign, in July the NNU responded to a request for comment on a draft proposal for regulating health information technology (HIT) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC), and the Federal Communications Commission. In its comments, the union criticized the billions of dollars the federal government has spent in support of EHRs in hospitals, in spite, it says, of the insufficient evidence that the technology saves lives and the inadequate safeguards against billing fraud. The union proposes that HIT be regulated at the same level as medical devices—“the highest level of oversight.”

The copresident of the NNU and the California Nurses Association, Deborah Burger, told AJN that although the campaign has received ample attention online, nurses have organized for tighter regulation of technology for quite some time. She knows of many nurses who have been disciplined—from a written warning to several days’ suspension—for overriding protocols put forth by CDS. By not allowing clinicians to follow their own clinical judgment when they know a “best practice” protocol is inappropriate, Burger said, “you set yourself up to be liable.” And she pointed out that the billions of dollars in federal incentives hospitals have received to implement EHR technology gives them plenty of reason to keep moving forward. (The incentives were instituted as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, the federal economic-stimulus package enacted in 2009. Facilities receiving the incentives must show that EHRs demonstrate “meaningful use” in specific areas such as drug-allergy checks in order to continue to receive these funds.)

“The hospital industry can't get rid of the technology because they've got the [diagnosis] codes and progress notes attached to it for billing,” Burger said. “As far as billing goes, it's extremely successful. But they're not in it just for the patient's interests, as we are. They're in it for the billing.”

As a part of EHRs, CDS systems are in widespread use in hospitals—especially when it comes to medication safety—according to a recent Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF) report, Health Information Technology in the United States: Progress and Challenges Ahead, 2014 . The RWJF cites data from an American Hospital Association survey showing that 81% of hospitals use CDS on all units to alert clinicians to possible drug allergies and drug–drug interactions. But just 55% of hospitals surveyed make clinical practice guidelines a part of CDS on all units, suggesting that there's much room for improvement when it comes to using the technology to promote evidence-based practice.

Also, the RWJF cites important limitations of CDS: the database must be updated as evidence changes, and in some cases the “decision support” provided won't apply at all. In fact, the authors write, a CDS system can be “inflexible,” exasperating clinicians to the point where they don't even use it. The report urges facilities to make every effort to find tools that guide users in how to standardize procedures and also “leave room to customize care for the individual patient.”

CDS AND EHRS: ARE THEY SAFE AND EFFECTIVE?

For nurse informaticist Patricia Sengstack, that goal represents a natural fit. Nursing informatics has evolved as a specialty since the 1980s; in recent years it has grown to include the analysis of clinical and financial data and the redesign of clinical procedures to incorporate technology. Sengstack, the president of the American Nursing Informatics Association and the chief nursing informatics officer at Bon Secours Health System, headquartered in Marriottsville, Maryland, has worked to design HIT systems for the people who use them.

“One of the things I've learned is you cannot configure the [technology] nurses use without nurses at the table,” Sengstack said. “It won't work, and you'll have angry nurses.” She characterizes the ideal nursing care in this era of increasing technology as being “high touch–high tech”—that is, hands-on attention that also makes good use of HIT tools. Sengstack gave the example of a nurse bringing a computer to a patient's bedside, pulling up records to discuss test results, and linking to MedlinePlus to show an illustration of a procedure.

While studying for her doctorate at Vanderbilt University, Sengstack conducted a literature review on the safety of computerized physician order entry and EHRs and found plenty of evidence to support the safe incorporation of EHRs into clinical practice. “There are possibilities and benefits we haven't even realized yet,” she said.

Research is ongoing. In September, the ONC released a new “Health IT Safety Plan” (available at http://bit.ly/1yI4dMH ). The plan cites a systematic review by Jones and colleagues, published in the January 7, 2014, issue of Annals of Internal Medicine , that evaluated meaningful-use data and found strong evidence to support CDS systems, with most studies showing positive or mixed-positive findings. “CDS generally results in improvements in the processes targeted by the decision support,” they wrote.

And more and more nurses are engaging with technology in ways that seek to keep patients as the focus of care. Patricia Flatley Brennan served as the director of Project HealthDesign, an RWJF program that helped patients design their own personal health records as a way of enhancing care decisions. Brennan, a professor of nursing and engineering at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, said, “In my research since the 1980s we have moved the needle away from nursing and technology toward how technology will help in the more informal spaces and lives of people.” In the final report of Project HealthDesign, published in April ( http://bit.ly/1vK4l8r ), Brennan wrote that patients’ own observations of their health should be viewed as data that can “strengthen the patient-clinician partnership by allowing clinicians to see a more robust picture of a patient's daily health experience.”

Despite the inexorable advances of HIT, NNU is not a lone voice in criticizing it. In mid-September the American Medical Association issued a report on the “usability” of EHRs, highlighting eight challenges physicians face, including the interference of technology in patient interactions and the insufficient support it provides for team-based care.

Sengstack hopes the questions being raised now about HIT will give everyone involved, patients included, an opportunity to come to consensus on the answers. “EHRs are not perfect,” she said, “but we're all in this together.”— Joy Jacobson

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Is Technology a Boon or a Bane? An Essay

Through neocolonial trade relations, globalization has caused a world-wide division of labor, resources, and consumption—between former colonizers and the colonized. Technology—the latest in the choir of idols worshipped by the modern West—exacerbates this schism even as it reduces it. This article explores the implications of the products of technology for work, class, and caste in this last phase of neocolonialism. Technological devices that de-class us, by replacing human and animal workers, can also re-class us by dividing owners from the operators of machines.

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Ameerudheen , TA . 2018 . “ Kerala engineers who developed robot to clean manholes are on a mission to end manual scavenging .” Scroll.In . Feb 27 . ( https://scroll.in/article/869900/kerala-engineers-who-developed-robot-to-clean-manholes-are-on-a-mission-to-end-manual-scavenging ).

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Bora , Garima . 2019 . “ A robot to end manual scavenging? This startup can provide the ‘Swachh Bharat’ we need .” The Economic Times . June 7 . ( https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/startups/features/a-robot-to-end-manual-scavenging-this-startup-can-provide-the-swachh-bharat-we-need/articleshow/69685536.cms ).

Genrobotics . nd. “ Manual Scavenging v/s Bandicoot .” Genrobotics. com ( https://www.genrobotics.org/bandicoot ).

Goswami , Subhojit . 2018 . “ Manual scavenging: A stinking legacy of suffocation and stigma .” DownToEarth . September 11 . ( https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/waste/manual-scavenging-a-stinking-legacy-of-suffocation-and-stigma-61586 ).

Heidegger , Martin . 1977 . The Question Concerning Technology and other Essays . NY : Harper & Row Publishers, Inc .

Nkrumah , Kwame . 1974 . Neo-Colonialism The Last Stage of Imperialism . London : Panaf Books Limited .

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