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Speech Acts: What is a Speech Act?

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Speech Acts

Aug 06, 2014

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Speech Acts. Direct and indirect speech acts. Speech Acts. Speech Events may also include Speech Acts . J.L Austin observed that ‘many utterances do not communicate information, but are equivalent to actions, e.g. I apologise…’ I promise….’ ‘I will….’ (at a wedding’

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• indirect speech
• explicit performatives
• politeness principle
• indirect speech act
• locutionary act

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Speech Acts Direct and indirect speech acts

Speech Acts • Speech Events may also include Speech Acts. J.L Austin observed that ‘many utterances do not communicate information, but are equivalent to actions, e.g. • I apologise…’ • I promise….’ • ‘I will….’ (at a wedding’ • ‘I name this ship….’

Performatives • Austin called such utterances performatives, which he saw as distinct from statements that convey information (constatives). I christen/name this ship The Queen Elisabeth (performative). Maurice Garin won the Tour de France in 1903 (constative) • Performatives cannot be true or false.

Explict vs implicit performatives • Explicit performatives are performative utterances that contain a performative verb that makes explicit what kind of act is being performed. I promise to come to your talk tomorrow afternoon. • implicit performatives are performative utterances in which there is no such verb. I’ll come to your talk tomorrow afternoon.

Common explicit performatives Other common Speech Acts are: • apology, • promise, • agreement • acceptance • advice • suggestion • warning • requests • betting • to second • to vote • to abstain

Searle’s Five Categories of Speech Acts Representatives: the speaker is committed in varying degrees to the truth of a proposition: e.g. ‘affirm’, ‘believe,’ ‘conclude’, ‘report’; I think the Berlin Wall came down in 1989 Directives: the speaker tries to do something e.g. ‘ask’, ‘challenge’, ‘command’, ‘request’. Pass me the towel, will you?

Commissives: the speaker is committed in varying degrees, to a certain course of action, e.g. ‘bet’, ‘guarantee,’ ‘pledge’, ‘promise’ ‘swear’. That’s the last time I’ll waste my money on so- called bargains Expressives: the speaker expresses an attitude about a state of affairs, e.g., ‘apologise’, ‘deplore’, ‘thank’, ‘welcome’- Well done, Elisabeth!

Declarations: the speaker alters the status quo by making the utterance, • e.g., I resign, you’re offside’, ‘I name this child’, ‘you’re nicked’, ‘you’re busted, punk.’

The three stages of a (successful) speech act • the locutionary act or the locution: the act of communication by the production of an utterance; • the illocutionary act or illocution: in other words, that is the message that is transmitted, which may not always correspond to the literal meaning of the words; • the perlocutionary act: that is the particular effect of the utterance, which does not necessarily correspond to the locutionary act.

‘And that is enough for today…’ • Locutionary act  (and that is enough for today) • Illocutionary act  ( students make preparations to quit the room) • Perloctionary act (you realise that a change has occurred)

Felicity conditions • the person performing the speech act has to have authority to do so – only certain people are authorised to perform certain speech acts; the speech act has to be performed in the appropriate manner (sometimes this involves respecting precise wording), this can also include the demeanour • sincerity conditions have to be present: the speech act must be performed in a sincere manner: verbs such as promise, vow, or guarantee are only valid if they are uttered sincerely. So a speech act like ‘and that is enough for today’ can only be taken as a declaration that the lesson has ended if: • I have the authority to perform the speech act; • If the hearers are in a position to perform the required action; • And if there is sincerity.  • If any of these conditions is lacking, then the hearers will deduce that they have to make a different interpretation of the speech act.

Indirect Speech Acts • For many reasons, perhaps because we are abiding by the politeness principle, for example, and we don’t wish to impose – we may ask for something to be done indirectly. ‘Can you pass the salt?’ is not really a question, but a directive; and answer of ‘yes’, without an attempt to pass it would be totally inappropriate and would violate the maximum of relevance.

Sentence type and illocutionary force • The three basic sentence types (declarative, interrogative, imperative) are typically associated with the three basic illocutionary forces: • Declarative: asserting/ stating; • Interrogative: asking/questioning; • imperative: ordering/requesting.

Difference between direct and indirect speech acts • A direct match between a sentence type and an illocutionary force, equals a direct speech act. • In addition, explicit performatives, which happen to be in the declarative form, are also taken to be direct speech acts, because they have their illocutionary force explicitly named by the performative verb in the main part of the sentence. • If there is no direct relationship between a sentence type and an illocutionary force, it indicates an indirect speech act. • When an explicit performative is used to make a request it functions as a direct speech act; the same is the case when an imperative is employed. By comparison, when an interrogative is used to make a request, we have an indirect speech act.

From Speech Act to Gradation of Indirect Speech Act • Shut the door! • I’d be grateful, if you’d shut the door. • Could you shut the door? • It’d help to have the door shut. • It’s getting cold in here. Shall we keep out the draught? • Now, Jane, what have you forgotten to do? Brrr!

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Oral Communication in Context Quarter 1 – Module 7: Types of Speech Act

This module Types of Speech Act was designed to make you better understand the following:

A. Types of Speech Act;

B. Locution (Utterance);

C. Illocution (Intention); and

D. Perlocution (Response).

As you go through this module, you will have a deeper understanding of the nature and elements of oral communication in context, and design and perform effective controlled and uncontrolled oral communication activities based on context.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. define speech acts;

2. distinguish types of speech act; and

3. recognize that communicative competence requires understanding of speech acts.

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Related Papers

Muhamad arifin

This paper addresses John L. Austin’s theory of speech acts, originally introduced in How to Do Things with Words, as well as John R. Searle’s Speech Act. It begins with the description of the notion of speech acts particularly in terms of its definition considering the exact limits of the discussion. It follows with the history of speech act theory which focuses on how the pioneer of this theory, Austin, came up with his ideas which then were further explored by his most famous student at Oxford University, Searle. Regarding the history, this paper brings the distinction between performatives and constatives which were introduced by Austin and then moves to his most influential work, that is, locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. It continues with surveying the direct and indirect speech acts. Another important concept certainly ought to be mentioned is Searle’s five classifications of speech acts. Finally, to complete the discussion, this paper switches to speech events and Dell Hymes SPEAKING model.

R. Dian D Muniroh

The study is aimed at investigating strategies of follow-up responses to refusals performed by Indonesians learning English as a foreign language. Having known that his/her desire or want is refused by his/her hearer, a speaker may provide a follow-up response to the refusal to maintain the flow of a talk exchange. This act may also mitigate the tension and is able to prevent the speaker from being considered impolite or non-cooperative. The study involves 20 students of the English Education Department of Indonesia University of Education. The data were collected through Discourse Completion Tests (DCTs). The collected data were then analyzed by using the framework proposed by Searle (1969), Blum-Kulka et al. (1989), and Aziz (2000). It is found that the respondents manifest the follow-up responses in a number of ways, which can be categorized as request, acceptance, apology, promise, refusal, and passive comment. These responses contain some strategies. While the category of request and refusal are manifested in six and two strategies respectively, the categories of acceptance, apology, promise, and passive comment are not further divided into finer categories because they only consist of illocutionary force indicating devices (IFIDs). This study concludes that an act of providing a follow-up response cannot be separated from the speaker’s attempt to maintain harmony in communication.

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Agustin Anggraeni

Key Words: speech acts, Ramayana comic, illocutionary act, perlocutionary act In this study the writer is interested in conducting an analysis of speech acts in Ramayana comic. There are two proposed problems: (1) what are the illocutionary forces in the utterances produced by Rahwana in the Ramayana comic the first series written by R. A. Kosasih and (2) how are the perlocutionary effects interconnected with the illocutionary forces in the utterances produced by Rahwana in the Ramayana comic the first series written by R. A. Kosasih. To answer the problems of study the writer employs a speech acts theory proposed by Austin (1962). Austin (1962) divided speech acts into three dimensions which are locutionary act, illocutionary forces, and perlocutionary effects. The types of illocutionary forces proposed by Austin are verdictives, excercitives, commissives, behavitives, and expositives. The perlocutionary effects can be intended or unintended. This study uses qualitative approach because the analysis of the data is explained in the form of description rather than numeral. Besides, the study is a document analysis because the data are Rahwana’s written utterances containing speech acts derived from a comic. The data source of this study is Ramayana comic the 1st series published by Ermar Press in 1981. Based on the result of the analysis, it is revealed that Rahwana employs all five types of illocutionary forces in uttering his utterances. They are verdictives, excercitives, commissive, behavitives, and expositives. All these illocutionary forces are uttered either explicitly or implicitly. Then, the perlocutionary effects of Rahwana’s utterances are intended and unintended. The most frequent illocutionary force Rahwana uses is excercitive which is uttered explicitly and the most frequent perlocutionary effect is intended. It is suggested to the next writers who want to conduct a study in the same field, especially speech acts, to analyze all the three dimensions of speech acts which are locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. In analyzing the locutionary act the next writers can use syntactical structure to determine the formation of the sentence in a speaker’s utterance and explains performative verbs in analyzing the illocutionary and perlocutionary acts.

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This paper is intended to understand how conversational pattern is occurred between conductor and passenger in public transportation. The research was conducted through case study. Data of the research were taken from the conversation transcriptions between conductor and passenger in public transportation. The result of the research shows that the most turn taking patterns in conversation are interruption, and the types of speech acts that mostly occurred are illocutionary act of directive, assertive, and expressive utterances. The research also finds the existing pattern of adjacency pairs, sequences, and implicature. Abstrak Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk memperoleh pemahaman tentang bagaimana pola percakapan terjadi antara kondektur dan penumpang di bus umum. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah studi kasus. Data penelitian diperoleh dari rekaman percakapan yang dibuat dalam transkripsi percakapan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pola giliran pembicaraan yang paling banyak muncul adalah interupsi, pada bentuk tindak tutur ilokusi direktif, asertif, dan ekspresif. Hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan munculnya pasangan berdampingan, rangkaian ujaran, dan penyiratan.

Rajendran Sankaravelayuthan

The aim of the subject of study is to give a brief introduction to semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is the study of meaning. More precisely it is the study of the relation between linguistic expressions and their meanings. Pragmatics is the study of context. More precisely it is the study of the way context can influence our understanding of linguistic utterances. The term semantics simply means the study of meanings. The study explores how meaning in language is produced or created. Semantics not only concentrates on how words express meaning but also on how words, phrases and sentences come together to make meaning in language. To start with, you will be motivated to focus on the nature and scope of semantics. Hence, here in this unit, you will be introduced to the concept and definition semantics, brief history of semantics, semantics and other disciplines, major concern of semantics, and the different approaches to the study of semantics. The symbols employed in language must be patterned in a systematic way. You have been already informed that language is organized at four principal levels – sounds (i.e. Phonetics/phonology), words (i.e. Morphology), sentences (i.e. syntax) and meaning (i.e. semantics). Phonology and syntax are concerned with the expressive power of language while semantics studies the meaning of what has been expressed. Knowledge of grammar is an aspect of the innate cognitive ability of human beings. The power of interpretation complements that innate ability. Interpretation is an aspect of semantics. Therefore, language acquisition or learning includes not only the knowledge of the organization of sounds and structures, but also how to associate meaning to the structures. Semantics can, therefore, be characterized as the scientific study of meaning in language. Semantics has been the subject of discourse for many years for philosophers and other scholars but later was introduced formally in literature in the late 1800’s. Hence, we have philosophical semantics and linguistic semantics among other varieties of semantics. Earlier scholars in philosophical semantics were interested in pointing out the relationship between linguistic expressions and identified phenomena in the external world. In the contemporary world, especially in the United States philosophical semantics has led to the development of semiotics. In some other parts of the world, and especially, France, the term semiology has been favoured. The reliance on logical calculations in issues of meaning has led to the development of logical semantics. However, for your purpose in this course, emphasis is on linguistic semantics, with our interest on the properties of natural languages. You shall see how this study relates to other disciplines. We shall also examine the real issues in linguistic semantics. Semantics has been identified as a component of linguistics. In its widest sense, linguistics is the scientific study of language. As a field of study, semantics is related to other disciplines. In semantics, we study the meaning of words and also how the meanings of words in a sentence are put together to form sentential meaning. Linguistic semantics studies meaning in a systematic and objective way. Since meaning as a concept is not static, a great deal of the idea of meaning still depends on the context and participants in the act of communication (discourse). There is a strong connection between meaning and pragmatics. The exchange or relay of information, message, attitude, feelings or values from one person to another contributes to the interpretation of meaning. This is done mainly by the use of language. It is often expressed that language is a system which uses a set of symbols agreed upon by a group to communicate their ideas or message or information. These symbols can be spoken or written, expressed as gestures or drawings. Depending upon the focus of study, semantics can be compartmentalized as lexical semantics, grammatical semantics, logical semantics and semantics in relation to pragmatics.

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