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Home » Humanities Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Humanities Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Humanities Research

Definition:

Humanities research is a systematic and critical investigation of human culture, values, beliefs, and practices, including the study of literature, philosophy, history, art, languages, religion, and other aspects of human experience.

Types of Humanities Research

Types of Humanities Research are as follows:

Historical Research

This type of research involves studying the past to understand how societies and cultures have evolved over time. Historical research may involve examining primary sources such as documents, artifacts, and other cultural products, as well as secondary sources such as scholarly articles and books.

Cultural Studies

This type of research involves examining the cultural expressions and practices of a particular society or community. Cultural studies may involve analyzing literature, art, music, film, and other forms of cultural production to understand their social and cultural significance.

Linguistics Research

This type of research involves studying language and its role in shaping cultural and social practices. Linguistics research may involve analyzing the structure and use of language, as well as its historical development and cultural variations.

Anthropological Research

This type of research involves studying human cultures and societies from a comparative and cross-cultural perspective. Anthropological research may involve ethnographic fieldwork, participant observation, interviews, and other qualitative research methods.

Philosophy Research

This type of research involves examining fundamental questions about the nature of reality, knowledge, morality, and other philosophical concepts. Philosophy research may involve analyzing philosophical texts, conducting thought experiments, and engaging in philosophical discourse.

Art History Research

This type of research involves studying the history and significance of art and visual culture. Art history research may involve analyzing the formal and aesthetic qualities of art, as well as its historical context and cultural significance.

Literary Studies Research

This type of research involves analyzing literature and other forms of written expression. Literary studies research may involve examining the formal and structural qualities of literature, as well as its historical and cultural context.

Digital Humanities Research

This type of research involves using digital technologies to study and analyze cultural artifacts and practices. Digital humanities research may involve analyzing large datasets, creating digital archives, and using computational methods to study cultural phenomena.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods in Humanities Research are as follows:

• Interviews : This method involves conducting face-to-face, phone or virtual interviews with individuals who are knowledgeable about the research topic. Interviews may be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, depending on the research questions and objectives. Interviews are often used in qualitative research to gain in-depth insights and perspectives.
• Surveys : This method involves distributing questionnaires or surveys to a sample of individuals or groups. Surveys may be conducted in person, through the mail, or online. Surveys are often used in quantitative research to collect data on attitudes, behaviors, and other characteristics of a population.
• Observations : This method involves observing and recording behavior or events in a natural or controlled setting. Observations may be structured or unstructured, and may involve the use of audio or video recording equipment. Observations are often used in qualitative research to collect data on social practices and behaviors.
• Archival Research: This method involves collecting data from historical documents, artifacts, and other cultural products. Archival research may involve accessing physical archives or online databases. Archival research is often used in historical and cultural studies to study the past.
• Case Studies : This method involves examining a single case or a small number of cases in depth. Case studies may involve collecting data through interviews, observations, and archival research. Case studies are often used in cultural studies, anthropology, and sociology to understand specific social or cultural phenomena.
• Focus Groups : This method involves bringing together a small group of individuals to discuss a particular topic or issue. Focus groups may be conducted in person or online, and are often used in qualitative research to gain insights into social and cultural practices and attitudes.
• Participatory Action Research : This method involves engaging with individuals or communities in the research process, with the goal of promoting social change or addressing a specific social problem. Participatory action research may involve conducting focus groups, interviews, or surveys, as well as involving participants in data analysis and interpretation.

Data Analysis Methods

Some common data analysis methods used in humanities research:

• Content Analysis : This method involves analyzing the content of texts or cultural artifacts to identify patterns, themes, and meanings. Content analysis is often used in literary studies, media studies, and cultural studies to analyze the meanings and representations conveyed in cultural products.
• Discourse Analysis: This method involves analyzing the use of language and discourse to understand social and cultural practices and identities. Discourse analysis may involve analyzing the structure, meaning, and power dynamics of language and discourse in different social contexts.
• Narrative Analysis: This method involves analyzing the structure, content, and meaning of narratives in different cultural contexts. Narrative analysis may involve analyzing the themes, symbols, and narrative devices used in literary texts or other cultural products.
• Ethnographic Analysis : This method involves analyzing ethnographic data collected through participant observation, interviews, and other qualitative methods. Ethnographic analysis may involve identifying patterns and themes in the data, as well as interpreting the meaning and significance of social and cultural practices.
• Statistical Analysis: This method involves using statistical methods to analyze quantitative data collected through surveys or other quantitative methods. Statistical analysis may involve using descriptive statistics to describe the characteristics of the data, or inferential statistics to test hypotheses and make inferences about a population.
• Network Analysis: This method involves analyzing the structure and dynamics of social networks to understand social and cultural practices and relationships. Network analysis may involve analyzing patterns of social interaction, communication, and influence.
• Visual Analysis : This method involves analyzing visual data, such as images, photographs, and art, to understand their cultural and social significance. Visual analysis may involve analyzing the formal and aesthetic qualities of visual products, as well as their historical and cultural context.

Examples of Humanities Research

Some Examples of Humanities Research are as follows:

• Literary research on diversity and representation: Scholars of literature are exploring the representation of different groups in literature and how those representations have changed over time. They are also studying how literature can promote empathy and understanding across different cultures and communities.
• Philosophical research on ethics and technology: Philosophers are examining the ethical implications of emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence and biotechnology. They are asking questions about what it means to be human in a world where technology is becoming increasingly advanced.
• Anthropological research on cultural identity: Anthropologists are studying the ways in which culture shapes individual and collective identities. They are exploring how cultural practices and beliefs can shape social and political systems, as well as how individuals and communities resist or adapt to dominant cultural norms.
• Linguistic research on language and communication: Linguists are studying the ways in which language use and communication can impact social and political power dynamics. They are exploring how language can reinforce or challenge social hierarchies and how language use can reflect cultural values and norms.

How to Conduct Humanities Research

Conducting humanities research involves a number of steps, including:

• Define your research question or topic : Identify a question or topic that you want to explore in-depth. This can be a broad or narrow topic, depending on the scope of your research project.
• Conduct a literature review: Before beginning your research, read extensively on your topic. This will help you understand the existing scholarship and identify gaps in the literature that your research can address.
• Develop a research methodology: Determine the methods you will use to collect and analyze data, such as interviews, surveys, archival research, or textual analysis. Your methodology should be appropriate to your research question and topic.
• Collect data: Collect data using the methods you have chosen. This may involve conducting interviews, surveys, or archival research, or analyzing primary or secondary sources.
• Analyze data: Once you have collected data, analyze it using appropriate methods. This may involve coding, categorizing, or comparing data, or interpreting texts or other sources.
• Draw conclusions: Based on your analysis, draw conclusions about your research question or topic. These conclusions should be supported by your data and should contribute to existing scholarship.
• Communicate your findings : Communicate your findings through writing, presentations, or other forms of dissemination. Your work should be clearly written and accessible to a broad audience.

Applications of Humanities Research

Humanities research has many practical applications in various fields, including:

• Policy-making: Humanities research can inform policy-making by providing insights into social, cultural, and historical contexts. It can help policymakers understand the impact of policies on communities and identify potential unintended consequences.
• Education: Humanities research can inform curriculum development and pedagogy. It can provide insights into how to teach critical thinking, cross-cultural understanding, and communication skills.
• Cultural heritage preservation: Humanities research can help to preserve cultural heritage by documenting and analyzing cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts. It can also help to promote cultural tourism and support local economies.
• Business and industry: Humanities research can provide insights into consumer behavior, cultural preferences, and historical trends that can inform marketing, branding, and product design.
• Healthcare : Humanities research can contribute to the development of patient-centered healthcare by exploring the impact of social and cultural factors on health and illness. It can also help to promote cross-cultural understanding and empathy in healthcare settings.
• Social justice: Humanities research can contribute to social justice by providing insights into the experiences of marginalized communities, documenting historical injustices, and promoting cross-cultural understanding.

Purpose of Humanities Research

The purpose of humanities research is to deepen our understanding of human experience, culture, and history. Humanities research aims to explore the human condition and to provide insights into the diversity of human perspectives, values, and beliefs.

Humanities research can contribute to knowledge in various fields, including history, literature, philosophy, anthropology, and more. It can help us to understand how societies and cultures have evolved over time, how they have been shaped by various factors, and how they continue to change.

Humanities research also aims to promote critical thinking and creativity. It encourages us to question assumptions, to challenge dominant narratives, and to seek out new perspectives. Humanities research can help us to develop empathy and understanding for different cultures and communities, and to appreciate the richness and complexity of human experience.

Overall, the purpose of humanities research is to contribute to a deeper understanding of ourselves, our communities, and our world. It helps us to grapple with fundamental questions about the human experience and to develop the skills and insights needed to address the challenges of the future.

When to use Humanities Research

Humanities research can be used in various contexts where a deeper understanding of human experience, culture, and history is required. Here are some examples of when humanities research may be appropriate:

• Exploring social and cultural phenomena: Humanities research can be used to explore social and cultural phenomena such as art, literature, religion, and politics. It can help to understand how these phenomena have evolved over time and how they relate to broader social, cultural, and historical contexts.
• Understanding historical events: Humanities research can be used to understand historical events such as wars, revolutions, and social movements. It can provide insights into the motivations, experiences, and perspectives of the people involved, and help to contextualize these events within broader historical trends.
• Promoting cultural understanding : Humanities research can be used to promote cross-cultural understanding and to challenge stereotypes and biases. It can provide insights into the diversity of human experiences, values, and beliefs, and help to build empathy and mutual respect across different cultures and communities.
• Informing policy-making: Humanities research can be used to inform policy-making by providing insights into social, cultural, and historical contexts. It can help policymakers understand the impact of policies on communities and identify potential unintended consequences.
• Promoting innovation and creativity : Humanities research can be used to promote innovation and creativity in various fields. It can help to generate new ideas, perspectives, and approaches to complex problems, and to challenge conventional thinking and assumptions.

Characteristics of Humanities Research

Some of the key characteristics of humanities research:

• Focus on human experience: Humanities research focuses on the study of human experience, culture, and history. It aims to understand the human condition, explore human values and beliefs, and analyze the ways in which societies and cultures have evolved over time.
• Interpretive approach: Humanities research takes an interpretive approach to data analysis. It seeks to understand the meaning behind texts, artifacts, and cultural practices, and to explore the multiple perspectives and contexts that shape human experience.
• Contextualization : Humanities research emphasizes the importance of contextualization. It seeks to understand how social, cultural, and historical factors shape human experience, and to place individual phenomena within broader cultural and historical contexts.
• Subjectivity : Humanities research recognizes the subjective nature of human experience. It acknowledges that human values, beliefs, and experiences are shaped by individual perspectives, and that these perspectives can vary across cultures, communities, and time periods.
• Narrative analysis : Humanities research often uses narrative analysis to explore the stories, myths, and cultural narratives that shape human experience. It seeks to understand how these narratives are constructed, how they evolve over time, and how they influence individual and collective identity.
• Multi-disciplinary: Humanities research is often interdisciplinary, drawing on a range of disciplines such as history, literature, philosophy, anthropology, and more. It seeks to bring together different perspectives and approaches to understand complex human phenomena.

Advantages of Humanities Research

Some of the key advantages of humanities research:

• Promotes critical thinking: Humanities research encourages critical thinking by challenging assumptions and exploring different perspectives. It requires researchers to analyze and interpret complex texts, artifacts, and cultural practices, and to make connections between different phenomena.
• Enhances cultural understanding : Humanities research promotes cross-cultural understanding by exploring the diversity of human experiences, values, and beliefs. It helps to challenge stereotypes and biases and to build empathy and mutual respect across different cultures and communities.
• Builds historical awareness: Humanities research helps us to understand the historical context of current events and social issues. It provides insights into how societies and cultures have evolved over time and how they have been shaped by various factors, and helps us to contextualize current social, political, and cultural trends.
• Contributes to public discourse: Humanities research contributes to public discourse by providing insights into complex social, cultural, and historical phenomena. It helps to inform public policy and public debate by providing evidence-based analysis and insights into social issues and problems.
• Promotes creativity and innovation: Humanities research promotes creativity and innovation by challenging conventional thinking and assumptions. It encourages researchers to generate new ideas and perspectives and to explore alternative ways of understanding and addressing complex problems.
• Builds communication skills: Humanities research requires strong communication skills, including the ability to analyze and interpret complex texts, artifacts, and cultural practices, and to communicate findings and insights in a clear and compelling way.

Limitations of Humanities Research

Some of the key limitations of humanities research:

• Subjectivity: Humanities research relies heavily on interpretation and analysis, which are inherently subjective. Researchers bring their own perspectives, biases, and values to the analysis, which can affect the conclusions they draw.
• Lack of generalizability : Humanities research often focuses on specific texts, artifacts, or cultural practices, which can limit the generalizability of findings to other contexts. It is difficult to make broad generalizations based on limited samples, which can be a challenge when trying to draw broader conclusions.
• Limited quantitative data : Humanities research often relies on qualitative data, such as texts, images, and cultural practices, which can be difficult to quantify. This can make it difficult to conduct statistical analyses or to draw quantitative conclusions.
• Limited replicability: Humanities research often involves in-depth analysis of specific texts, artifacts, or cultural practices, which can make it difficult to replicate studies. This can make it challenging to test the validity of findings or to compare results across studies.
• Limited funding: Humanities research may not always receive the same level of funding as other types of research. This can make it challenging for researchers to conduct large-scale studies or to have access to the same resources as other researchers in different fields.
• Limited impact : Humanities research may not always have the same level of impact as research in other fields, particularly in terms of policy and practical applications. This can make it challenging for researchers to demonstrate the relevance and impact of their work.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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A "how to" guide for UC Berkeley writers

Doing Research

In the humanities, as in the sciences, research begins with formulating a hypothesis about a subject and “testing” it out by engaging with evidence. But the nature of the evidence, the method of testing, and the kind of knowledge produced in humanities research differ from those in the sciences.

Rather than using quantitative or qualitative evidence as researchers do in the sciences, humanities researchers rely for evidence on their own close readings of primary and secondary texts. Whereas research in the sciences is grounded in the empirical method, humanities research uses a diverse array of methodologies, sometimes combining historical, conceptual, and/or critical methodologies in a single study. And instead of attempting to “prove” their hypotheses once and for all, humanities researchers develop arguments using their hypotheses in order to contribute and extend to ongoing critical conversations. These conversations themselves, one might say, constitute knowledge in the humanities.

Doing research into what has already been written about on your topic will allow you not only to situate your hypothesis within these conversations, but also to come up with questions that haven’t yet been asked. Through critical reading, you can identify gaps in previous writing on your topic and orient your own project to address these gaps if they seem like meaningful oversights. Your aim as a humanities researcher, then, is to develop a fuller understanding of your subject matter in dialogue with other scholars, and thus to move this ongoing conversation forward.

To develop a research question, you might start by making a bulleted list of topics or issues that you might want to pursue, based on your interests and the concerns of your course. When making this list, you should be expansive. Don’t limit yourself: your goal at this stage is to generate ideas, not evaluate them.

Next, you could try free-writing on the themes you see emerging from your list of potential topics. Are there any areas of interest that seem to repeat or echo? Can you start to create umbrella terms? Are you noticing friction within or between some of these concerns? These are just a few of the questions that may lead to a more focused line of investigation.  

Then, see if you can reframe your topic or theme as a research question by asking “How?” or “Why?” Keep in mind that your research question should be debatable and defendable : you may find that other scholars have very different points of view on this question or its answer. This is a good sign, and an invitation for you to step in and contribute to the scholarly discussion.

  Here are some helpful suggestions for broadening, narrowing, or otherwise tweaking a preliminary research topic so that you will be poised to write a well-focused essay.

And here is a concise overview that will guide you on the road to finding your research question . 

To engage fully with your secondary sources, you will need to read critically. But reading sources critically doesn’t necessarily mean disagreeing with them or reading them in a negative way. Rather, it means analyzing the details of an argument-driven piece of popular or scholarly writing that you may ultimately use towards fashioning your own argument. It means asking how these details reflect the assumptions, values, and stakes of the writer’s argument. Reading critically means navigating between doubting and believing what you read. 

When reading critically, we treat what we read less like objective, self-evident data and more like evidence being presented to persuade us of something. Sometimes it’s obvious that what we’re reading is trying to persuade us of something—think of an editorial that takes an explicitly controversial stance or a scholarly article that clearly signposts its position using phrases like “here I argue…” Other texts may make their arguments more subtly or indirectly. But either way, reading critically involves considering how the components and structure of the argument contribute to its actual or intended effect upon the reader.

One approach to reading critically is to investigate a text’s “ way of thinking .” Rather than reading simply for comprehension or information, you can also attend to a text’s claims, contexts, kinds of reasoning, and evidence in order to evaluate the effectiveness of its argument and to think about what you might add to the discussion or redirect it.  

Another approach involves asking questions about the relationship between the parts and the whole of an argument. These questions might address the role of pattern, process, sequence, causality, and other elements of argumentation and structure.

Here are some tips for reading secondary sources and some step-by-step exercises for reading critically.

Since you can’t write an interesting research paper without engaging with other scholars’ ideas, you’ll have to find secondary sources that are accurate and pertinent to your argument.

You’ll almost certainly want to start online, but the internet is an enormously complex—and just plain enormous!—compendium of resources. You can use Wikipedia to check out some basic facts and get some rough background information, but it’s not a reliable, scholarly source–see What’s Wrong With Wikipedia . Likewise, Googling, even using Google Scholar , can only get you so far, since there are valuable scholarly resources out there that are discoverable only by using humanities-specific Web directories ( Voice of the Shuttle , started in 1994, is the granddaddy of all online humanities research directories) and databases ( JSTOR , Project Muse , and the MLA International Bibliography , among others), along with the Berkeley library’s online catalogue .

Before you begin searching in a library catalog or journal database, familiarize yourself with using advanced search functions , such as “Boolean operators” (the basic ones are AND, OR, and NOT), truncation and wildcards (*, !, ?, or #), and keywords and subject headings. Here are some suggestions for coming up with searchable keywords .

You can read many of the sources (especially the articles) that you find through databases entirely online; you’ll need to track down other sources (like most books and book chapters) in the library. Once you’ve found a book in the library, take some time to scan nearby shelves for other books on the same topic that might not have come up in your catalog search. Also scan the bibliographies and footnotes of books and articles you’ve already found: these are great places to find more sources on your topic.

“Good” here means two different things: “good” as in relevant to your topic and useful for the kind of argument you’re making, but also “good” as in scholarly, reputable, and current. 

To determine the usefulness and relevance of a secondary source, begin by skimming it .  If the source at hand is an article, read the abstract. If it doesn’t have an abstract, read the opening paragraph, the section headings, and/or first sentences of a few of the body paragraphs, plus the concluding paragraph. If it is a book, read the blurb on the back cover, the table of contents, and the beginning and ending of the introduction and/or conclusion. From this quick but strategic dip into a secondary source, you should be able to glean something about its overall argument and whether it provides useful material for your own project. 

Remember: don’t discard a scholarly source just because it contradicts what you want to say. Do you disagree with its premises, its use of evidence, or its conclusions? Any of these points of disagreement might provide a foothold for advancing your own argument. Or if a secondary source does not address your primary text directly, does it put forth a theory or provide information that will help you to analyze your text?

Your quick dip into a source may also give you a feel for the quality of its scholarship. But there are also many concrete questions you can ask about a source to evaluate its reliability. What are the credentials of the author? Who is the publisher and the intended audience? When was it published? What sources does it cite? For a more detailed breakdown of ways to evaluate print and online sources, consult one or more of the following (reliable!) resources:

Evaluating Resources (UC Berkeley Library) Quality of Sources (Dartmouth College) Critically Analyzing Information Sources (Cornell University Library) Evaluating Web Pages (Cornell University Library) Evaluating Print vs. Internet Sources (Purdue OWL) Interpreting Sources (University of Michigan)

Skimming is a valuable reading technique. It can give you a general sense of what a  text is about, and it can help you to locate key arguments and passages relevant to your own research and writing. Skimming is also useful when you’re short on time. Let’s be honest: skimming is sometimes the only reading you have time to do!

But skimming does not mean speed-reading an entire text; zooming through a whole story or story at breakneck speed is, generally speaking, a waste of your time. Instead, skim strategically. Read the first and last pages of the whole work, and then read the beginning and ending of each chapter. Look for words, especially names, which appear repeatedly, dipping selectively into the text to get a sense of the style and “texture” of the writing.

Scholarly and critical texts, typically used as secondary sources, often have abstracts that give a summary of their main argument, and they also often have section headings, topic sentences, and transitions to guide readers through their discussion. Introductions are good places to look for roadmaps and thesis statements, while conclusions often summarize the whole argument. Focusing on these signposts will help you get the gist of an article or book without reading the whole thing in depth. These techniques are especially useful when your research turns up multiple secondary sources and you need to select the ones most relevant to your own topic. 

You can find some pointers on skimming in this very thorough set of instructions on How to Read a Book . 

Taking notes is an essential part of doing research. Obviously, the notes you take should provide a clear record of what you’ve read. But the very act of note-taking can help you to develop your thinking about your research question and ultimately to use evidence to support your argument.

To help yourself read secondary sources critically, you should take thorough but not overly detailed notes . Make sure to record key terms but don’t write out everything word for word; paraphrase whenever possible to make sure you have a grasp of relevant points; and don’t highlight or underline without also making marginal notes about the significance of the marked words or passages and any questions you might have about them. 

Make sure to include complete bibliographic data with your notes on each source so that you can retrace your steps if you end up needing to go back for more information or to check that you are quoting accurately. There are many different formats for note-taking—in the margins of the text or on Post-Its; on paper or in a Word document—and you’ll need to experiment to figure out what works best for you. You will also need to work out a good system for organizing and reviewing the notes you take. If you are juggling multiple sources, for example, consider using index cards or a citation management software ( Zotero and Mendeley are two popular ones) to organize and annotate your sources. You can even use these programs to generate properly formatted endnotes and Works Cited lists.

You can use your notes as the basis for an annotated bibliography ; here are some additional resources on writing annotated bibliographies.  Even if your instructor does not require you to produce a formal bibliography as a preliminary phase of your research paper, your own notes will still serve as the basis for situating and differentiating your own argument within a field of existing literature. Your notes should help you to take a strong, well-informed, and original stance in your writing. 

Research, like writing, is not a linear process. You will probably begin with a broad topic that will gradually become more focused over the course of your research and writing. You’ll then have to do additional research on this more focused and developed version of your original topic. Remember that the evolution of your topic depends not only on your reading but also on your writing throughout the research process. Such preliminary writing might include producing an annotated bibliography and/or a prospectus, as well as in less formal modes such as freewriting, mind mapping, outlining, and drafting.

The process of researching and refining, and researching and refining again, could go on endlessly, but don’t let it. You have to strike a balance between your responsibility as a researcher—citing and integrating the sources most relevant to your topic (not just the first three sources you find!)—and what is humanly possible. You can’t read every source ever written on your topic, and you shouldn’t. Remember that your goal is to develop and answer your specific research question. When you have a good sense of how your argument fits into the existing conversation, you can stop.

How do you know when enough is enough? Here are some diagnostic questions to help you answer the question: “When Can I Stop Researching?”

It’s not enough to use secondary sources merely for factual or historical information, although this is certainly one thing that sources can do for you. It’s also not enough to simply say “I agree” or “I disagree” with what other scholars have written, although this can be a starting place for developing a tentative research question and even a tentative thesis. Through thoughtful selection of and engagement with secondary sources, you can participate in ongoing critical conversations and even propel them in new directions. (Of course, the initial phases of your attempt to enter one of these conversations might reveal to you that you need to find different or additional sources!)

You might begin by considering how your sources are using their own sources . They probably cite other research to support their own claims (“Yes, and…”), to make a new claim instead (“No, because…”), or acknowledge other arguments in order to show a critical “gap” in the conversation, which their own argument will fill (“Although X and Y, nonetheless Z…”). In turn, you can use the specifics of their critical positioning to situate yourself in the discussion.

There are any number of ways of navigating secondary sources effectively , most of them involving either limited alignment or partial dissent. Some of these modes of engagement include adopting a term, adapting a theory, and changing the question, using moves that might be described as “picking a fight,” “drawing battle lines,” “piggybacking,” “leapfrogging,” and “matchmaking.” Here are two overviews of basic maneuvers and fundamental strategies for using secondary sources to develop an argument.

In order to effectively use your secondary sources to develop an argument, you need to clearly and gracefully integrate material from those sources into your sentences. Whether you paraphrase, quote, or summarize this material, you must fully signpost its relation to your argument, whether via limited alignment or focused dissent. As when you are making an argument about a primary text , you need to ensure that you are analyzing your source rather than leaving it undigested for your reader. Toward that end, there are a few things you should consider when integrating sources:

• Evaluate whether you need to quote, paraphrase, or summarize . Here are some tips on when and how to   summarize effectively. And here is some advice for determining whether   paraphrasing or quoting will best serve your purposes.
• When paraphrasing, be sure to do so accurately and fairly . You can practice this skill by doing this quick paraphrasing exercise . Just as when you quote word-for-word from a text, it is crucial to avoid plagiarizing when paraphrasing . For more information on avoiding plagiarism when quoting and paraphrasing, jump to the next section, “How do I responsibly cite my sources and avoid plagiarism?”
• Always be sure to Introduce, Cite, and Explain (“ICE,”for short) your evidence! Another way that you can ICE your evidence is by “sandwiching ” it between a claim and analysis, much as you would introduce and analyze a primary text.
• Familiarize yourself with guidelines about when quoting is most effective rhetorically and how to avoid quoting extraneous material . Determine which type of quotation —a block, spliced, or signaled quote—best suits your purposes.
• Before you submit your essay, be sure to review the   nuts and bolts of integrating source material into your prose, i ncluding using proper punctuation. Bonus: here’s a list of signal verbs and phrases to help you synthesize the words and ideas of other scholars.

Whenever you use language, ideas, or arguments from others, you need to cite them. The Berkeley Campus Student Code of Conduct frames improper citation as a form of academic misconduct —failure to cite one’s sources properly constitutes the theft of intellectual property. Plagiarism can make you subject to penalties ranging from failing an assignment to failing a course. Under some circumstances, suspension or even dismissal from the university may be imposed as a sanction.

Correct citation is not only a matter of personal and scholarly integrity. There’s another important reason to cite the arguments of other scholars who have written on your topic: citing them accurately and fully allows other scholars to track down those sources themselves . . . and it also allows you to check your own work. This practice might be compared to writing a detailed account of your experimental method in the sciences—citation is what gives research in the humanities its “replicability.” In sum, citation allows the scholarly conversation to continue moving forward. 

What counts as plagiarism? It can take a wide variety of forms, not just the act of submitting the work of another person as your own. Copying language directly from a source, like “patch-working” together sentences or paragraphs or ideas from multiple sources, is also plagiarism. And paraphrasing or rewording of sources without attribution can also be considered plagiarism. Even if you discover that a source makes the same point that you made first on your own, you still have to cite it! 

The easiest way to avoid plagiarism? If you’re in doubt about whether or not you should cite something, cite it! Accidental plagiarism is still considered plagiarism and is subject to the same repercussions. Keeping scrupulous notes throughout the research and writing process will help you to remember which ideas and phrasings are your own and which came directly from your sources. 

There are several different formats for citing sources; your instructor will tell you which style—MLA style, Chicago, style etc.—to use. For more details on MLA style, the most common citation format in the humanities, try the Purdue OWL or The MLA Style Center .

There is a wealth of resources–guides, grants, mentoring, awards, and more–for undergraduate research across the humanities at UC Berkeley. Here are some of the best-known ones, though you may be able to find others under the auspices of specific departments or programs.

You can begin searching for materials through the Library Guide to Research , which is organized by discipline or area of study. You can also find here the contact information for the particular UC Berkeley librarian who is an expert on research offerings in each subject area, and who can guide you to these resources. There are many research databases and subject-specific guides listed here under each heading. One that you won’t find listed there, A Guide to the Archive Resources of the Bay Area , lists some of the primary research offerings at UC Berkeley’s Bancroft Library and other university archives around the Bay. 

The Office of Undergraduate Research and Scholarships (OURS) is a clearing house for information about university-wide research grants and mentoring programs across the disciplines including the Haas Scholars Program , Student Mentoring and Research Teams (SMART), Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowships (SURF), Underrepresented Researchers of Color (UROC), and Undergraduate Research Apprentices Project (URAP). They have databases with information about many other internal and external grants and programs, as well as offering help with finding and applying for these. Don’t forget to check with individual departments for major-specific prizes. UC Berkeley’s English Department, for example, offers travel grants for undergraduates to attend conferences and to do research at archives elsewhere in the U.S. and abroad. 

When your research is done or close to being finished (the submission deadline is in mid-April!), you should consider applying for the Library Prize for Undergraduate Research . 

For additional materials, go to  Teaching Research  in the  For Instructors  section of this website.

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Conducting research.

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Researching in the Humanities

The fields in the Humanities discipline generally include the visual and performing arts, philosophy, literature, religion, history, languages, art history, and classics.  Although research methods differ among the Humanities, the Social Sciences, and the Sciences, any research project in any discipline starts with curiosity and a hypothesis.  Often research topics are interdisciplinary and may include multiple subject areas and methods from more than just one discipline.

When beginning a research project in the humanities, you must develop a deep knowledge base in a subject area, choose original sources to examine, locate and evaluate sources that also explore your areas of interest, and then come to your own original conclusions. Libraries can help you find the material you need to get started.  The research guides listed on the right are created by WUSTL Subject Librarians.  Subject Librarians have expertise in both searching techniques and academic fields, and their online guides suggest resources for the different phases of the research process: 1) Use background sources to establish your knowledge base.  These could be subject encyclopedias, key works in a field, bibliographies, etc. 2) Select original sources, commonly referred to as primary sources, for your analysis.  Primary sources are simply original works, e.g., novels, photographs, diaries, correspondence, advertisements, eyewitness accounts. 3) Find articles, reviews, and books that analyze primary sources.  These are known as secondary sources. Then, synthesize all this information with your own thinking and draw your original conclusions, thus creating new research in the field.

If you need additional assistance, please reach out to one of the Subject Librarians.

• Find a Subject Librarian This is a list of the Subject Librarians by academic subject.

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Four types of research in the humanities: Setting the stage for research quality criteria in the humanities

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Michael Ochsner, Sven E. Hug, Hans-Dieter Daniel, Four types of research in the humanities: Setting the stage for research quality criteria in the humanities, Research Evaluation , Volume 22, Issue 2, June 2013, Pages 79–92, https://doi.org/10.1093/reseval/rvs039

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This study presents humanities scholars’ conceptions of research and subjective notions of quality in the three disciplines German literature studies, English literature studies, and art history, captured using 21 Repertory Grid interviews. We identified three dimensions that structure the scholars’ conceptions of research: quality, time, and success. Further, the results revealed four types of research in the humanities: positively connoted ‘traditional’ research (characterized as individual, discipline-oriented, and ground-breaking research), positively connoted ‘modern’ research (cooperative, interdisciplinary, and socially relevant), negatively connoted ‘traditional’ research (isolated, reproductive, and conservative), and negatively connoted ‘modern’ research (career oriented, epigonal, calculated). In addition, 15 quality criteria for research in the three disciplines German literature studies, English literature studies, and art history were derived from the Repertory Grid interviews.

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Resources on Postcolonialism

How to write and publish academic articles in the humanities (part 1-4),   introduction, how to write and publish.

Thus, in a way, this concise guide to academic publishing also attempts to demystify the process of humanities publication and provides some experiential insights into the research writing, and structuring of a paper. Readers interested in the basic mechanics of writing research papers should read this guide in conjunction with books specifically focused on the intricacies of composition and writing.

Most graduate students have to take a scholarly writing course in their first year.  These courses do teach the basics of how to write and publish often do not offer detalied knowledge about academic publishing itself. The main purpose of such courses is to teach them the techniques about researching and writing scholarly articles. Based in my own experiences of publishing academic articles and monographs, this brief guide is meant to augment what you might have learned in your classrooms. While I cannot promise absolute success, I do, however, suggest that some of the steps to write and publish, as discussed below,  could be quite useful for successful publishing in the humanities.

This guide is organized in four chapters: Chapter One covers the philosophical and practical reasons for academic publishing, Chapter Two provides the details about research and writing of a scholarly paper, Chapter Three deals with writing the first draft, and Chapter Four informs you about the process of submitting your paper to the right journal and following it through to its ultimate publication.

Chapter 1: Why We Write and Publish?

Remember, humanities publication is always a conversation with past and contemporary scholars in your field of study.

Though all of us in the humanities are trained and are expected to write and publish, we are never really encouraged to ask ourselves as to why do we need to write and publish? Answering this question is key to developing the kind of academic publishing and research one conducts. Listed below are some of the reasons that I have heard about the need for academic publishing:

• To produce knowledge.
• To contribute to our Field of Study.
• To impact the world.
• To meet professional requirements.
• For professional recognition.
• To create a body of work.

To Write and Publish  to produce Knowledge

When we write to produce knowledge, what we are acknowledging, imperceptibly, is that we see ourselves as producers of knowledge in our field and our academic publishing is a reflection of such a belief. The writing so guided, tends to rely on an Arnoldian model of research and encourages a sort of scholarship of detachment. [1] The scholarship of detachment is deeply concerned with the objectivity of our work and is more focused on the long-term impact of our writing. Writers who are motivated by this mode of writing, often do not tend to be engaged with current politics or state of the world; their writing, thus, tends to hope to accomplish some change over a long period.

We often also use this mode of thinking to rationalize our privileged location in the academy and through this market-derived understanding of our work, we can protect ourselves from the every-day wants and needs of the world. Thus, while the world continually moves toward harsh inequalities and brutalities of gender, race, and class we simply write and publish our deeply specialized esoteric works thinking to ourselves that we are doing our share of work and in the end, in the long run, when the world catches up with it, our work will become relevant and will be understood and be used to change the world.

Most social scientists rely on the same kind of argument. Since they are trained to think of themselves as scientists, they have to create an aura of detachment from their object of study. As a result, they train themselves to collect the data and then provide a dispassionate analysis of the data to write and publish. This became clear to me after a conversation with a sociologist friend recently. When I asked him as to what his opinion was about how to change the living conditions of the group he was studying, his response was that seeking an amelioration of the situation of his sample subjects was not his job and if he did so, he would become an activist. His argument was hinged upon the belief in knowledge production and under this logic, his job was to produce knowledge for activists, governments, and other bodies. It was the function of those other groups to use his meticulously collected and analyzed data to make policy changes.

There is nothing wrong with thinking like this and if this is how you have been trained in your field then your research should be guided by this, but keep in mind that this is only one disciplinary approach and if you find essays that do not follow this pattern, then those essays might have been conceptualized and composed under a different set of assumptions.

Write and Publish to Contribute to our Field of Study

In one of his books, one of my former colleagues, Mark Bracher, terms this the “discourse of the discipline.” [2] Under this register, we teach our students the major debates in their fields of study in order for them to specialize. The students, in turn, worry only about the discipline and what is current and in vogue in it and then produce professional scholarship that displays their knowledge of the field. Needless to say, this knowledge of the field is necessary for professionalism and also for publications, for how would one come up with something new to publish if one did not, if your writing is field-specific, knowing the filed, its major critics and theorists, and its established canon is a prerequisite for writing publishable articles.

Write and Publish to Impact the World

While this is what guides most of my scholarship, this mode of approaching one’s research is still quite controversial in the English departments. By and large, most senior established scholars in most of the English departments feel that it is not their job to try to change the world. Mostly younger scholars or scholars who specialize in highly political or contestatory fields (gender studies, postcolonial studies, African-American studies etc.) tend to do mostly political and activist work. Their writings, by and large, tend to connect the critical analysis with the world outside the academy and hope to either effect some change or at least have an ameliorative strain. If this register is important to you, your writing will have to be different from a traditional paper and will have to engage with the real-world issues.

Write and Publish to Meet Professional Requirements

This probably is the least “heroic” reason to write and publish, but has the most impact on your life as a humanities scholar. First, if you are a graduate student, you are pretty much required to write research papers for your graduate courses. Secondly, while in graduate school you are also required to produce a finished and defendable dissertation.

If you are a graduate student entering the job market, your faculty mentors will advise you to publish in your field, for only then you will be competitive with all the other freshly minted PhDs entering the market.

Furthermore, even after you land a tenure track job, you are required to produce a consistent body of work in order to keep your job, win tenure, and get professional promotions. Thus, even though this sounds like a very cynical reason to publish your work, this, in fact, happens to be the prime motivator for a lot of scholars to continue publishing.

Write and Publish to Garner Professional Recognition

Whichever sub-field of literary studies you are engaged in, one important reason to write and publish your work is also to garner material and symbolic recognition. If you become a well-known figure in your field of study, through your publications, not only would your institution acknowledge it in material terms but your opinions within your department and outside of it would carry more weight.

This recognition is not just self-serving: it is in fact connected to pretty much all that you want to do as a scholar. As a highly published scholar, you will be more mobile, attract better graduate students, be asked to give public presentations, and will generally be regarded as the person to go to when questions about your specific expertise arise in the media as well as in the academia. Having this symbolic recognition can, in turn, assist you personally but can also help you in placing your graduate students’ work, and, if you like, it can also help you make an impact in the world.

Write and Publish to Create a Body of Work as a Reference

This aspect of scholarly publishing became clear to me when I started writing political blogs and when the frequency of my public talks increased. In both instances when someone objected to my views in a blog or in a talk—considering the narrow focus of the topic—I started referring them to my other published work where, it seems, I had already answered that particular question. Thus, overall if as a scholar you also hope to have a public presence, you will realize that your body of work itself becomes a reference for you to argue your point to varied and diverse reading or listening audiences. Thus to write and publish, in a way, enhances your public reach and your ability to pursue larger causes.

Chapter 2: Preliminary Steps for Writing a Paper

I understand that there are hundreds of books that explain the mechanics of academic publishing. My aim here is not to dwell on the mechanics, but to rather give you some basic ideas about the process of choosing a topic, researching about it, and then composing the first draft. If you are a graduate student, please keep in mind one simple principle:  Write every class paper as if you aim to publish it!  This principle will force you to write papers that are worthy of your time and that have some possibilities instead of writing about things that have been covered, probably more eloquently, by other scholars.

Coming up with a Paper Topic

This is one of the most important steps for academic publishing: choosing a topic. This applies especially to all those who are slogging through their graduate studies, often overworked and underpaid. As a key principle, one that has helped me a lot, always choose something that is eventually publishable. Think of it this way: you have to produce a good paper that would take your time and effort, so why not put your efforts into something that can be, with revisions, eventually published. Here are some of the steps that would help you choose your topic:

• Choose something that you care about: I know this sounds like a cliché, but if you are going to put so much effort into a writing project, make sure that you care enough about it to sustain the activity. Furthermore, chances are if you care about an issue, it will eventually figure prominently in your future work. Therefore, use the forced opportunity of a graduate course to write about something that is likely to be important to you in the future.
• Perform broad research. Broad research is usually synchronic: it means you look for whatever has been recently published about your tentative topic. This allows you to learn varied perspectives about your topic and will also enable you to place your argument within a contemporary discussion.
• But what if nothing has been published about your chosen text? Well, that is a good thing! You can still read works that are tangentially related to your topic and then offer your views about an unexplored or “undiscovered” text!

Where to start?

MLA International Bibliography, available at all research universities, is the ideal place to start your research for academic publishing. Just look up your topic, author, or text and see what all has been published about it or related to it in the last few years. If possible, at least download and print the abstracts to get a general idea about what has been published.

This basic exercise into finding whatever has been done about your possible topic is crucial as it allows you to figure out whether or not what you are planning to spend so much of your time and energy on is a topic worthy of your effort. Thus, the research in breadth will decide whether you want to keep the chosen topic or want to amend it or abandon it altogether.

Look at the pictures below as an example of a general search using the MLA International Bibliography:

Conduct in-depth Research

Now that you have researched in breadth and honed your possible topic, and before you write and publish, it is time to perform deep research. This involves reading selected major articles related to your topic as well as any major books that have been published about it. At the least, based in my own experience, you will read at least ten relevant articles and a few books to really grasp what is being said or has been published about your chosen topic.

After you have read in-depth, you will now be able to decide the ultimate fate of your topic and if you still think you can say something different or “original” about the topic, in comparison to other works published about it, then now you have the point of entry into the scholarly conversation. Finding this point of entry is crucial, for otherwise you will end up writing an article that has already been written!

Furthermore, when you submit your article, your reviewers will not only be looking at your article alone but will also be evaluating whether or not you are aware of the works on the similar topic published by others. And if you engage with those works in your essay, the reviewers will further evaluate as to whether or not what you are saying is comparatively good enough to be considered worthy of publication!

Ask Around and Seek help

Even though we are trained to think of ourselves as lone-wolf researchers, we do live in an extremely connected and collaborative world of research. If you are in a graduate program and writing a paper for your class, your professor and your colleagues are a wonderful resource during the incubatory period of your research, and even during the writing process.

Do contact your professor and request to discuss your paper ideas with her. Chances are that the professors will point you to certain important texts that you might still need to consult. Jot down those suggestions as the texts or theorists that they mentioned are probably important to them may be important for your paper.

Similarly, do not hesitate to share your paper ideas with your colleagues; they might be able to give you some generalized and some specialized suggestions about your paper.

Also, if you are taking a course but it has nothing to do with your area or concentration, seek out fellow graduate students in your class who might be specializing in that particular area and ask their pinion about your topic. I recall many instances where I either contacted my fellow students about a paper that was more pertinent to their area of study and similarly I assisted quite a few of my own colleagues when they had questions related to postcolonial theory, my field of expertise. Join the Graduate Student Writing Support group: If none exists, form one!

Now that we have shared some basic ideas, it is time to move on to talk about some basic techniques that I have found useful in writing my articles for publication.

Thesis Statement

As a reviewer of refereed articles, I have often noticed that as I start to read an article for review, I am expecting to find out what the paper is arguing about on the very first, or at the least, on the second page. In other words, as a referee I am immediately looking for the thesis of a submitted article. Pretty much all major journals in humanities request and ask for a clearly defined thesis for the submitted article. Thus, just from the future publication prospects of an article, it is crucial to have a clear and well-articulated thesis. Furthermore, it as also necessary to craft a good thesis, for the quality of your writing would depend upon the clarity of your thesis. The thesis also enables to review your own draft and to understand immediately as to what does not belong in your essay: anything that does not directly or indirectly have a bearing on your thesis. Thus, having a clear thesis is important both for the quality of your paper and for successful academic publishing.

Crafting a Thesis for Academic Publishing

The thesis also decides the kind of paper you will end up writing and the writing strategies involved will be decided by the specific type of your thesis. There are, generally, papers with three kinds of theses:

• Argumentative

Expository Paper:  An expository paper usually explains something to a reading audience. Here is a good example:

In this paper I will explain as to how in Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children Salim Sinai is the ultimate unreliable narrator.

Obviously, the very statement of thesis suggests that you as a writer are assuming that your audience does not know much about your subject, and you, therefore, based on your own research or someone else’s research are going to use your knowledge and skills to explain this particular subject to your readers.

In literary studies, all papers that explain how something works [what is a sonnet, for example] would fall into this category. Note, even though the thesis sounds less complex, one can write quite sophisticated papers using such a thesis. The only thing to keep in mind is this: YOU are explaining something to your audience from an authoritative position as a scholar.

Analytical   Paper  An analytical thesis breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts, evaluates the issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the audience. Here is a good example:

Using Chandra Mohanty’s discussion of female agency, In this paper I will analyze the acts of agency performed by the female characters in Flora Nwapa’s Efuru. I will also read the text to further elaborate as to what particular enabling conditions within the plot make such acts of female agency possible.

Note that even though the thesis does use theory, it is only using theory to analyze the acts performed within the body of the text; it is not arguing for or against, hence it is not an argumentative paper, and the attempt to analyze the enabling conditions is also geared toward proving that the acts of female agency do exist in the novel. The analysis, thus, provides an explanation of something present in the novel and elements that make that “presence” possible.

Argumentative Paper:  An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with specific evidence. The  claim  could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation. The goal of the argumentative paper is to convince the audience that the claim is true based on the evidence provided. [3]

Using Fredric Jameson’s concept of the ideologeme, I plan to read Osman Sembene’s God’s Bits of Wood to suggest that if solidarity is assumed to be the ultimate ideologeme of the novel, the one can clearly understand the mechanics of the labor strike within the novel and then apply this knowledge to contemporary labor struggles within neoliberal capital.

A paper with such a thesis is arguing that the novel can teach us something about labor strike within the novel but also, the paper argues, this knowledge can be useful in the real-world struggles of the workers. Since the paper argues for a certain specific point of view within the novel and advocates for a certain specific reading, it displays all the major tropes of an argumentative paper.

Chapter 3: Writing the First Draft

Needless to say, there are plenty of good books, especially written by composition theorists and scholars, that can help you learn the art of crafting the first draft. This, essay, therefore, contains brief guidelines based in my own personal experience of writing the first draft, an experience that of course relies on the knowledge I gained during my education and in actual practice of writing publishable articles. By now, I am assuming, you have conducted your research, taken your notes, formulated your thesis and are ready to commit to writing a first draft. Bear in mind that the way you write is absolutely depends upon your own personal techniques of writing: some people, I for example, sit down and write a complete first draft in one sitting; some take their time and develop their draft paragraph by paragraph making sure to get the writing as perfect as possible to the final version. In my case, I have found a quick writing of the first draft more useful to the way my mind works.

Some Basic Steps to Academic Publishing

My essays usually need more extensive editing after I have composed my first draft. So, please figure out what is your “natural” style and then follow its rhythms in writing your first draft. Here are some of the steps I follow:

• I make sure that I have sufficient time to at least finish the draft in one sitting.
• I work with a practiced structure (explained below) so that the ideas are generally transcribed in the sequence in which they are supposed to appear.
• I do not stop to add quotes/ citations in the first draft. Instead, I just leave myself hints to add it later. For example, if discussing a certain idea by a theorist I would write “In his book X Foucault discusses the use of power as follows: YY). Or leave myself a note like this: “Insert quote from xxx.”
• The point is to capture and develop your own ideas and thoughts first. You already know what are you conceptually responding to, and the specifics of the “What” can be added later.
• I try to have a workable full draft in one sitting (This mostly works with essays of about 6000 words). I usually do not stop to correct the spelling or syntactic errors (When working on a book, MS Word often gives up on auto-spell checking my document). For example, see the errors in a picture of this very chapter I was writing it for my blog:

Some Things to Keep in Mind for Academic Publishing

I am not going to belabor the mechanics of writing the draft, for I am assuming you already know that, but my purpose here is to share the process that works for my writing and might be of some use to you. Here are some of the things I keep in mind while composing my first draft:

Introduction and Thesis

In the beginning of my essay, I briefly introduce the text I am writing about. Usually, this introduction is one compact paragraph and includes the main thesis of my essay.  For example:

PUBLISHED IN FRENCH in 1960, Ousmane Sembene’s Les bouts de bois de Dieu [God’s Bits of Wood] serves a two-pronged purpose of representing a narrativized, particularistic account of a strike while also offering certain universal aspects of class struggle. This dual focus on the local and the global makes the novel a perfect didactic instrument for teaching resistance in the current state of neoliberal capital. Using Fredric Jameson’s concept of the ‘ideologeme’, this essay discusses the novel’s attempt to re­present the 1948 Dakar strike as a clue to learning the absolutely necessary preconditions for successful resistance in the neoliberal regime of high capital.

Explain your Theory and your Reasons for Writing the Essay

I make sure to cite and explain the particular theory that I am using. It is important to explain as to which particular “understanding” of a theory or a concept are you using, so that your readers know that you are applying a specific understanding of the theorist or theory. Furthermore, this brief explanation also kind of “teaches” the reader as to how to read your essay clearly. Here is an example of this practice:

The habitus is both the generative principle of objectively classifiable judgements and      the system of classification (principium divisionis) of these practices. It is in the relationship between the two capacities which define the habitus, the capacity to produce classifiable practices and works, and the capacity to differentiate and appreciate these practices and products (taste), that the represented social world, i.e., the space of life- styles, is constituted. (Bourdieu 1984: 170) To unpack this, a habitus both produces the system of judgements [of taste and art etc.) and also provides a classification, or hierarchy, of these judgements. For example, the distinction between high and low art would, in this sense, be constituted by the habitus and then explained and formulated within the same logic of the habitus. And, as Bourdieu suggests, it is within the gap between these two corresponding functions of the habitus that one can learn the governing system of appraisal within a specific lifestyle. This aspect of the habitus is important to bear in mind while dealing with PWE [Pakistani Writing in English] and its reception within and without Pakistan. 

From one of my recently published book chapters, the above is an example of introducing your theory and then explaining its specific usage in your argument. I always give a reason as to why it is necessary to read/ understand the text I am writing about. in other words: Why does it matter for me to write it and for you, the reader, to read it?  For example, in the article I am using as an example here, this is the reason I provide to my readers:

This essay discusses the novel’s attempt to re­present the 1948 Dakar strike as a clue to learning the absolutely necessary preconditions for successful resistance in the neoliberal regime of high capital. 

Thus, the essay announces at the outset that there is a two-pronged purpose for this essay: to discuss the chosen text and to draw some particular lessons for real life politics. (Depending upon your particular subfield in English studies, the politics part may not be necessary for you) [4]

Provide an Account of Previous Work on the Text

Then, I provide an account of previous works published about the text and add where I am either building up on previous work or challenging my predecessors’ opinion of the text (Word of advice: be generous in dealing with other people’s work). This is where you will discuss the articles that you had researched during the early stages of your publication plan.

Provide Transitions and Signposting

Do not be afraid of telling your reader as to why you are discussing a certain part of the text, and after discussing a part of the text make sure to provide signposts and clear hints to the reader about where your discussion is headed. Usually at the end of a long paragraph, I add something like this:

Having discussed xx I would now move on to YY, as it is important to zzz.

This kind of signposting is absolutely necessary, as it leads the reader from one part of your argument to the other, thus making the essay more readable and your intent clearer.

Anticipate Counter Arguments/ Criticisms of your Essay and Craft a Built-in Response

As you write, try to imagine how someone not familiar with what you are doing or someone invested in a different view of the text would respond to your argument. One of such people could be the reviewer of your article. Where necessary, explain either within the text of your essay or in a footnote that you are aware of an alternative way of looking at the same problem and that you are rather choosing to go in a different direction. You may even provide your reason for this different approach.

Keeping some of these things in your mind, please follow the general writing techniques to finish your first draft. After you have finished your first draft, then you can work to revise it for the soundness of your argument and for style and coherence. It would be great if you could workshop the paper with your mentors and peers. When you think your paper is ready for submission, only then should you consider the next step of submitting the paper. I will discuss the submission and final publication process in the next chapter.

Chapter 4: Submitting Your Essay

Finding the right journal.

Now that you have revised and finalized your paper, it is time to submit It to a reputable peer-reviewed journal. How do we know which journal to submit our articles to and whether or not the journal we have chosen is a real journal and not a predatory publishing mill?

Of course, the main journals in your field would be pretty obvious. For example, here in the US journals such as PMLA , Victorian Studies , and other journals associated with a university, corporate academic publishers (like Taylor and Francis or Springer), journals published by academic associations are pretty well-known. Another way of finding out the reputation of a journal is by looking up if the journal is indexed in the MLA Directory of Periodicals . Of course, you can also ask your mentors and colleagues about where to submit your articles.

Avoid predatory/ Deceptive Journals

As for predatory journals, it is always better to do your research. There used to be a  running list  of predatory journals maintained by a librarian, but that list was taken down after fear of legal reprisals. But you can still use some of the following criteria to figure out if it is a fake journal:

• You recently presented at a conference and you receive a badly composed email asking you to submit your article.
• The journal charges a publication processing fee. Note, while subventions is often part of scientific and some social sciences journals, humanities journals generally do not charge a publication fee.
• The journal website has obvious stylistic and spelling errors and does not list an editorial board, editorial team, or explain their professional affiliation with an association or a university.
• If they offer to publish your paper without the review process.
• If you cannot find any details about people listed as editors or members of editorial board.

Follow the Journal’s House Style

So, let us assume you have surfed the web and asked around, and now have a list of possible journals. Now, the topic or subject of your paper will further refine your list, for you still need to submit your article to a journal that publishes on the subject that you have chosen for your paper. After you have reached your final short list of journals, it is now time to revise your article according to the house style of your selected journal. You may also want to browse the journals table of content to see what kind of papers they have previously published.

Most journals explain their house style on the Author Guidelines or Submission Guidelines page. Please read those instructions and follow them throughout the process. Here are some of things usually listed under author guidelines:

• Whether or not the journal accepts simultaneous submissions.
• The preferred citation style of the journal.
• The format in which they want the article.
• Blind peer review requirements.
• The likely time required for review.
• The submission and editing process

Submitting the Paper

After you have revised the paper according to the author guidelines of your chosen journal, it is now time to actually submit it. If the paper accepts online submissions, then please follow the online instructions. Pakistani scholars, please note that most US journals require US Letter size for your pages and not A4, so please make sure to format accordingly. If they require you to send hard copies, then please mail the hard copies to the specific editor or to the address listed for submissions.

The Review Process

If you submitted online, you will probably get an immediate confirmation message and you will probably also be able to track your article through your online account with the journal.

After the editors receive your submission, they will send it out to at least two reviewers. Some journals may also first do an in-house review before sending your article to reviews. This practice allows the editors to decide whether or not it is worth their while to invest time and resources in conducting the review. Chances are, if your article does not meet the journals criteria, is not ready for review, or is on a hackneyed topic, the editors will let you know pretty soon that they will not be sending it out for review. Most journals, however, automatically start the review process after an article is submitted.

Editing After Reviews

So, you have waited from three to, sometimes, six months and have now received your reviews:

Most reviewers are requested to give substantial comments and they choose one of the following recommendations:

• Accept without revisions
• Accept with minor revisions
• Accept with substantive revisions
• Revise and Resubmit

The no 1 rarely happens and has never happened to me. No 2 happens when the reviewers find your topic compelling enough to suggest that even though the essay needs a little bit of editing, it can be published after addressing some minor issues. Number 3 happens when your essay is about a promising and original topic and hence worthy of publication after some major changes are made. No 4 implies that your essay requires revisions of the kind that would need another round of review, probably by the same reviewers. And of course, we all know No 5, for who has not received a polite rejection message in their academic life. Needless to say, it is always prudent to agree to revise.

To revise, please read the reviews carefully and highlight what the reviewers have pointed out. Then deal with each issue carefully and revise. If you decide not to incorporate any suggestions, please compose your reason separately so that you can add it to your letter to editor.

Note: a “revise and resubmit” is not a rejection: it still is a chance at publication so you should never give up on the essay.

After you have edited the paper, it is better if you share your revised essay with a friend or a colleague. Before you send the revised essay back, please also compose a letter explaining your revisions. In this letter, please explain how you have dealt with each issue raised by each reviewer. I always divide my letter into two parts, Reviewer 1 and Reviewer 2, and then address each reviewer’s concerns separately.

Now, you are ready to send your revised article back!

Copyediting and Proofreading

A well-run journal will always assign your paper to a copyeditor or a line editor and will never make any changes without your consent. After the copyeditor has gone through your paper, he or she will send it back to you with suggested corrections and comments. Please read carefully, accept or reject changes, respond to comments and send the paper back in a timely fashion. This is also the last stage where you can still make some extensive changes, like revising a sentence or rearranging a paragraph. So, be diligent and deliberate. You have reached almost the last stage of your “write and publish” mission!

Proofreading and Publication

After the copyediting has been finalized, the editor will send your article to the layout editor. The latter will make the galleys and send them to you for final proofreading. This stage is not meant for substantial changes but only to correct any typos or spelling errors. Please read carefully, for this is almost the final version of your article.

Note you cannot make changes directly to a galley. You will have to write a note. For sample:

• On page 9, line 8 Change “far” to “for”
• Page 10, footnote 11, line 2, replace “Saeed” with “Said”

Generally, this would be the format for any corrections that you might request. After the proofread file is back, the editor will schedule your article for publication and soon, after all your hard work, your article will be published!!! You have, in a sense, mastered the art of academic publishing.

As I stated in my introduction, this is an extremely brief guide to academic publishing and is meant for those who already know the basics of how to write and publish.  My hope is that these practical suggestions would augment your formal learning of scholarly writing and enable you to write and publish successfully. I write regularly about issues of scholarly interest and most of my writing can be found on my website: https://postcolonial.net . Please feel free to visit my website and add any queries or suggestions!

Video Lectures on Publishing

About the Author

Author of several academic books, Dr. Masood Raja is an associate professor of Postcolonial studies at the University of North Texas and editor of Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies . Raja’s public writings are available on two of his websites:

http://masoodraja.com

https://postcolonial.net

Raja tweets @masoodraja

[1] This insight comes from Mathew Arnold’s famous essay about the functions of criticism. For details please read Arnold, Matthew. “The Function of Criticism at the Present Time.” The Norton Anthology of Theory & Criticism , Second Edition, Editors, Leitch et al (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2010): 695-714.

[2] For details please read Bracher, M. (2006). Radical Pedagogy: Identity, Generativity, and Social Transformation . (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).

[3] This information about three kinds of theses has been modified from Purdue Online Writing Lab: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/thesis_statement_tips.html

[4] To read my full article on Sembene, please visit: https://postcolonial.net/publications/

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Thank you Sir Masood Raja l. The post waa extremely enlightening. Pleasure

Some of my senior colleagues have rejected MPhil theses proposals of some students on account of the fact that the students drew on the theoretical perspectives of one theorist only. The objection that they made is that a research work which refers to the work of a single theorist is lopsided. So one must refer to at least three theorists. How do you see this? Your opinion about it? And another objection that they made about a thesis proposal was that one can’t work on feminism with two authors whose gender is not the same. I mean they suggested that to work on feminism both the authors must be women. Your comments please.

I find this to be just plain wrong on many accounts. One could easily use one single theorist to write an entire work, as most major theorists have a huge body of work one can use. Said’s Orientalism, for example, mostly draws on Foucault’s theory of discourse. One could use Marx, though one theorist, to write a whole dissertation. One could also incorporate an awareness of any critiques of the theorist one is using. The insistence that to do feminist work the gender of the authors used is also misguided, as there can be both female and male authors with feminist views and politics and one can always write in solidarity with any gender or class. In my view such decisions are always arbitrary and are mostly based in the prejudices and preferences of the senior scholars in any field.We have such people here in the Us as well, people who have fixed and limited views of what constitutes good scholarship. The trick, as a mentor, is to guide your student along the way so that they can come up with the kind of proposal that has no chance of being rejected.

[…] I conduct the Webinar, please make sure to read my Guide to Scholarly Publishing, as I will be relying on it to structure the […]

[…] provided on both my sites is useful and of high quality. Just as a guide, please note that my education writings mostly appear on Postcolonial Space and my political and general writings are posted on Cross […]

[…] teaching and research, knowing the nuanced meanings and definitions of various theoretical terms is absolutely important. […]

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Writing in Humanities: Do’s and Don’ts for Researchers

Academic writing in humanities plays a pivotal role in advancing the field and disseminating new ideas to a diverse global audience. With readers from various cultures and first languages, effective writing in humanities and sociology requires clarity, convention, and a structure that supports reader comprehension. To help researchers make their mark in influential international journals, we present five essential dos and five critical don’ts of effective academic writing in humanities and sociology to help researchers create a lucid narrative and showcase concepts that can strengthen your argument.

5 Dos to keep in mind when writing in humanities

Maintain focus on the problem statement.

When writing in humanities, remember to clearly state the aim of the study and the problem statement in the introduction, and refer back to this in later sections so that readers do not stray away from the key message.

Present relevant, interesting original work

Leading international journals will only publish work that is original and fills gaps in our current understanding. So, choose the topic of your research carefully to ensure your work is novel, relevant, and interesting.

Write in clear, concise, simple language

When writing in humanities, it’s always helpful to use short sentences that convey your message in a clear, easy-to-understand way. While you may be tempted to use technical jargon, steer clear of complex terms and convoluted phrases that can be confusing or even misleading for your audience.

Be aware of the target journal’s scope

Some journals focus on a certain aspect of the subject, while others publish work from related fields like anthropology, psychology, economics, political studies, and history. So, when writing in humanities, keep in mind the target journal’s scope, audience, and ensure your research can be understood by non-academics or peers from other fields.

Make your Abstract impactful and discoverable

Abstracts are perhaps the most important part of your manuscript and must be crafted with a lot of thought. Typically, keywords from the Abstract and research paper title are used to drive its success on search engines so use at least one phrase to indicate your problem statement, the methodological approach used and why it is important for readers and understand.

5 Don’ts when writing in humanities

Not including visuals to break the monotony of text.

Visuals are a great way to convey complex concepts at a glance, but these should be designed to clearly communicate ideas, without needing to refer to body text. Avoid complicated or ambiguous visuals, use high-definition images, include captions and legends, provide abbreviations and symbols where required, and appropriately cite copyrights, sources, or permissions.

Not adhering to ethical reporting guidelines

Academic writing in humanities often include human subjects, which requires appropriate permissions, ethical reporting, data sharing, and author identification. Adherence to the standards of the Declaration of Helsinki and the ASA’s Code of Ethics on informed consent is considered mandatory; neglecting to follow these ethical guidelines can be cause for manuscript rejection.

Not paying attention to analyses of results

Most reputed journals require authors to include an analysis of the study in the Discussion section; it is not enough to merely mention the validity of findings. This is a common reason for journal rejection among early career academics, who detail their findings and state the methods and approach but overlook this aspect in their humanities research paper.

Not addressing the limitations of the study

Humanities and sociology involve the study of human society and culture, with all its diversity and complexities. This makes it crucial to mention the limitations of your study in the final paragraphs of your humanities research paper to help readers understand the study’s purpose in the context of existing relevant international literature. Provide a brief summary of the issues you addressed, the restrictions your report uncovered, and how your research can benefit future studies in the field.

Not mentioning the impact and applications

Researchers aspire to conduct studies that are relevant and positively impacts our world, so when writing in humanities, highlight the value of your work. It is essential to explain why your study is relevant to readers and how it directly connects with existing themes and concepts. Highlighting your study’s potential applications, relevance and contribution allows readers to analyze your work from specific perspectives and understand its significance in the broader context.

Don’t miss the chance to learn more on how to write a good humanities research paper , where the writing style, structure, and presentation differs from other disciplines. And when you are writing in humanities, remember to write simply and clearly to connect with a diverse audience. By following the dos and avoiding the don’ts mentioned above, researchers writing in humanities can elevate their manuscripts, engage their readers, and leave a lasting impact on the field. Happy writing!

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Volume 16, Number 2, 2024

Research Articles on Language Engineering

Detection of English Grammatical Errors and Correction using Graph Dual Encoder Decoder with Pyramid Attention Network Hema M, Kandasamy Sellamuthu, Vijayarajeswari R DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.04 | First published : 29 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Bridging Tradition and Technology: QR Code Integration in Lontara Script Learning Book to Improve Writing and Language Skills Yusuf Yusuf, Gusnawaty Gusnawaty, Risdamayanti Risdamayanti, Fathria Azzahra Affandy, Nur Alya DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.03 | First published : 03 May, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Semantic Model for Fragment of Hindi (Part 2) Vivek Tripathi & Dinesh Rathod DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.02 | First published : 25 April, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Artificial Intelligence-Assisted Chinese L2 Writing: An Empirical Study on Educational Sustainability in Africa Lishen Yu, Qingqing Kong & Hongyan Hao DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.01 | First published : 22 April, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Research Articles in the General Areas

Implementation of Reinforcement Learning Algorithm in the Development of English Language Learning Skills Gomathi R D, Punithaasree K S, Vijaya Kala S & Maheswaran S DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.35g | First published : 30 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Argument Composition in N+LV Complex Predicates of Kannada Satish Kumar Nadimpalli & Bh V N Lakshmi DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.34g | First published : 30 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Inclusive Integrativeness: A New Approach to ESL Learning in Multilingual Contexts Urbashi Borbora & Debasish Mohapatra DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.33g | First published : 28 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Amorous Encounters in Eco-theological Spaces: An Exploration of Malayalam Cinema Anjana Menon & Priya Jose K DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.32g | First published : 28 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Dalit Echoes, Green Stories: Understanding the Caste-Environment Nexus in South Indian Raps Anupama Madhusudan DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.31g | First published : 26 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Dominant Language, Urbanization and Lexical Depletion of Native Language: A Corpus Linguistics Study Gatha Sharma DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.30g | First published : 23 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Subverting Anthropocentric Mythic Elements: Animal Representations in the Select Poems of Louise Glück and Mary Oliver Sandhra Sunny & Sharmila Narayana DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.29g | First published : 23 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Constituting a ‘Moral’ Public: Society, Law and Literature in Colonial India Yagyaseni Bareth DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.28g | First published : 23 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

“The Humble Mahar Women Fall at Your Feet, Master.” Portrayal of the Psyche and Suffering of Mahar Women in Baby Kamble’s The Prisons We Broke Priya Verma, Surbhi Saraswat & Antara Datta DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.27g | First published : 23 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Relationship between Extroversion Personality and Learning Strategy-based on MBTI Test Pang Yifan, Harwati Hashim & Nur Ehsan Mohd Said DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.26g | First published : 23 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Controversy as Currency: An Investigation into the Economy and Politics of Literary Prizes Aditya Ghosh DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.25g | First published : 23 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Level Ordering and Lexical Phonology of Bangla: A Stratal Optimality Theoretic Analysis Tanushree Sarkar DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.24g | First published : 23 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Loving and Terrible Mother: An Archetypal Redefinition of African Motherhood in Beloved Aviti Latha & Bhavani S DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.22g | First published : 20 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Acceptance of Sexual and Gender Minorities through Romance TV Drama Series with LGBT Characters: The Voices of College Students in Thailand Yuki Amaki DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.20g | First published : 18 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Precarious Lives of the Proletariat: Exploring the Human-Induced Catastrophe in the web series The Railway Men: The Untold Story of Bhopal 1984 (2023) Shibu Gorai & Shri Krishan Rai DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.19g | First published : 18 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Exploring the Complexity of Mauli : An Analysis of Solidarity, Speech Community, Religion, and Gender in Marathi Address Term Usage Hanamant Metkari, Kaniphnath Malhari Kudale & M Raja Vishwanathan DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.18g | First published : 18 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Navigating Multiple Burdens among Women in Government Service Cherry Ann B. Chagyowen DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.17g | First published : 17 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Desiring audiences: We will go to the cinema if…? Bikash Ch. Bhowmick DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.16g | First published : 07 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

The Rhetorical Uneasiness: A Study of Rebecca Whittington’s Translation of Jibanananda Das’s Malloban Sampriti Bhattacharyya & Mallika Ghosh Sarbadhikary DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.15g | First published : 07 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Employment Skills Revisited: A Qualitative Exploration of Multi-Stakeholder Perspective in China’s “3+1” Higher Education Context Wanyu Wang, Muhammad Hussin, Mohamad Zuber Abd. Majid DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.14g | First published : 07 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Becoming a Tradition: Presentation of Ti Qin Opera in Funerals in Chongyang County, China Li Shijie, Julia Chieng, Chan Cheong Jan DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.13g | First published : 06 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

The Prototype and Political Mythical Connotations of “Drowning Death” in Kenzaburo Oe’s Death by Water Jiang Wanting DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.12g | First published : 06 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Royal Fabrics: The Politics of Apparel in Tudor England as Reflected in Hilary Mantel’s Wolf Hall Trilogy Masum Janid & Anjali Daimari DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.11g | First published : 06 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Exploring English Teaching Materials and Methods at the HSC Level: An Empirical Study Md. Munibur Rahman, Marium Jamila & Farhana Yeasmin DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.10g | First published : 03 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Folklore of the Himalayan Foothills: Weaving Traditions in Bodo Folklore Rishma Basumatary & Teresa L Khawzawl DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.09g | First published : 02 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Politics of Symbolising Female Characters in Paulo Coelho’s By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept Rajat Sebastian DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.08g | First published : 02 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Art Deco Architecture in Pune from the 1940s to the 1960s Nikita Mahajani DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.07g | First published : 02 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Visual Voices: The Techniques and Emotions of Czechoslovakia’s Illustrative Masters (1979-2015) Hoda Zabolinezhad, Mitra Mokhtarpour-e-Saravi, Zahra Falah Mehtarlou DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.06g | First published : 22 May, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Re-gendering Art: A Study of Ravi Varma’s Shakuntala Writing a Love Letter on a Lotus Leaf I. Vinitha Chandra DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.05g | First published : 22 May, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Women, Markers, and Representation in Early Telugu Cinema K. Suneetha Rani DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.04g | First published : 09 May, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

From Shadows to Spotlight: Unveiling the Saga of Manual Scavenging in India Nihal Raj, Manish Tiwari & Suyasha Singh Isser DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.03g | First published : 22 April, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Chathi Mai in Popular Imagination: Exploring Narratives, Worship, and Rituals in North India Akanksha Yadav & Vinita Chandra DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.02g | First published : 10 April, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Assessing the Effectiveness of Quizizz Mobile App in Improving Grammar Competence among EFL Students Nguyen Ngoc Vu, Kwok Thoai Nhi, Tran Ngoc Ha, Bui Duc Tien DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.01g | First published : 10 April, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Book Review

Book Review: Queersapien by Sharif D. Rangnekar Aditi Gupta DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n2.23g | First published : 23 June, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

Themed Issue  Indigenous Performance Ecologies and Ecological Power in the Global South Volume 16 Number 1, 2024 Editor: Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah University of Warwick, UK

Download the Cover Page (Photo by Liu Yixing)

EDITORIAL OPEN ACCESS Introduction to Indigenous Performance Ecologies and Ecological Power in the Global South Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.00 | First published : 31 March, 2024 Full-Text HTML Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Harmony Unveiled: Human-Nature Dynamics in From the Land of Green Ghosts Maitreyee Borthakur DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.19 | First published : 30 March, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS The Silenced “Other” Talks Back from Jungle: A Study of Hunting Ritual by Indigenous Women in Mahasweta Devi’s “The Hunt” Mallika Bala & Madhumita Roy DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.18 | First published : 30 March, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS From Folklore to Film: The Politics of Storytelling and Ecological Agency in the film Kantara Sathish Kumar C DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.17 | First published : 30 March, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS The Sacred Groves of the Serpent Gods: ‘Sarpakavus’ of Kerala as Indigenous Ecology Devika B DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.16 | First published : 22 March, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS The Ecology of Body Memory in Heisnam Kanhailal’s Theatre Anannya Nath DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.15 | First published : 21 March, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS The Role of Traditional African Festivals in the Sustenance of the Ecosystem: Ikenge Festival in Utagba-Uno, Southern Nigeria as a Paradigm Augustina Ashionye-Obah Obamwonyi & Joyce Austen Onyekuru DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.14 | First published : 05 March, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Preserving the Feitao Ritual in an Era of Globalization: The Heritage Ecology of Maonan Ethnic Minority in Modern China Liu Yixing & Chow Ow Wei DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.13 | First published : 24 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS The Capitalocene Versus Indigenous Eco-justice in Helon Habila’s Oil on Water Trina Bose DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.12 | First published : 24 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Locating Empire and Capitalism in Amitav Ghosh’s The Living Mountain: A Fable for Our Times Amit Kumar & Vikas Sharma DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.11 | First published : 24 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Biodiversity, Ecomusicology and Fostered Nominal Ecology Damilare Ogunmekan, Margaret Akpevweoghene Efurhievwe & Igue Philo Okpeki DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.10 | First published : 24 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Nature’s Notes: Analyzing the Environmental Advocacy in the Deuda Songs of Nepal Saroj GC & Bhupesh Joshi DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.09 | First published : 19 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Orality and Indigenous Environmentalism in Sarah Joseph’s Gift in Green Darpana Gogoi DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.08 | First published : 13 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Indigenous Festivals as a Tool for Forest Preservation and Cultural Revival in Nigeria Blessing Adjeketa, Alphonsus Shireku & Oliogu Tunde Obado DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.07 | First published : 10 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Indigenous Environmentalism through Dance: The Ohaji-Egbema Experiment in South-Eastern Nigeria Princewill Chukwuma Abakporo & Stanley Timeyin Ohenhen DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.06 | First published : 10 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Weaving Dreams of a World Among Worlds: T’nalak of the T’boli as an Ecological Practice Leni dlR. Garcia & Hazel T. Biana DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.05 | First published : 08 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Palliating War Trauma: Exploring the Therapeutic Role of Nature in Silko’s Ceremony Sini Jacob & Benoy Kurian Mylamparambil DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.04 | First published : 08 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Indigenous Festivals and Climate Sustainability in India: A Case Study of Cultural Practices and Performances Ayan Mondal & Maya Shanker Pandey DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.03 | First published : 05 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Resisting Eco-colonialism Through Indigenous Epistemologies and Performances in Nigeria Stanley Timeyin Ohenhen & Princewill Chukwuma Abakporo DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.02 | First published : 03 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Indigenous Ecologies in Mahasweta Devi’s Chotti Munda and His Arrow Antara Saha DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.01 | First published : 31 January, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

General Articles

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS A Mixed-Method Study on the Impact of Movie-Based Learning on Chinese Undergraduates’ Cultural Identity Jing Tao, Aidah Abdul Karim & Mohd Khalid Mohamad Nasir DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.08g | First published : 30 March, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Rewriting Femborgian Narratives: Transgression and Subversion of the Female Cyborg in Her and Ex Machina Nilima Chaudhary DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.07g | First published : 30 March, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Kajari Folk Songs: Mechanism for Emotional Regulation Milan Chauhan & Swasti Mishra DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.06g | First published : 06 March, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Savage Desires: Afghanistan as a Site for Othering in Dharmatma and Khuda Gawah Marjuque Ul Haque DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.05g | First published : 06 March, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS The Unconscious as Cinematographic Form: A Psychoanalytic Reading of Inception Deniz Çelik & Tugba Elmaci DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.04g | First published : 06 March, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Semantic Model for Fragment of Hindi (Part 1) Vivek Tripathi & Dinesh Rathod DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.03g | First published : 12 February, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Unravelling the Linguistic Tapestry: A Discursive Study of Gender Portrayal in Select Indian Electronic Advertisement Shubham Pathak, Ipsita Mondal & Swasti Mishra DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.02g | First published : 25 January, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Digital Literacy as a Meta-Cognitive Component of Younger Students’ Intellectual and Creative Potential in Foreign Language Lessons Aliya E. Balgabayeva, Tatiana O. Karataeva, Irina S. Karabulatova, Roza M. Aitzhanova, Aigul A. Zhumadullayeva & Dina M. Zharylgapova DOI : https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v16n1.01g | First published : 12 January, 2024 Abstract Full-Text PDF

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Volume 16, 2024

• Number 1 : Themed Issue on Indigenous Performance Ecologies and Ecological Power in the Global South
• Number 2 : Language Engineering and general articles

Volume 15, 2023

• Number 1 : Themed Issue on Current and Future Directions in TESOL Studies 
• Number 2 : General Issue
• Number 3 : General Issue
• Number 4 : Themed Issue on the AI Revolution
• Number 5 : Special Issue on Poetics of Self-construal in Postcolonial Literature

Volume 14, 2022

• Number 1 : Themed Issue on Contemporary East and Southeast Asian Literary and Cultural Studies
• Number 2 :  Themed Issue on Literature of Northeast India & General Articles
• Number 3 : Themed issue “Across Cultures: Ibero-America and India” & General Articles
• Number 4: Themed issue “Global Anxieties in Times of Current Crises”

Volume 13, 2021 

• Number 1 : General Issue under Continuous Mode
• Number 2 : Special Articles on Health Humanities and General Articles
• Number 4 : General Issue

Volume 12, 2020 

• Number 2 : General Issue under Continuous Mode
• Number 3 : Special Collection on “India and Travel Narratives”, guest-edited by Ms. Somdatta Mandal, PhD
• Number 4 : General Issue under Continuous Mode
• Number 5 : 1st RIOC Conference Issue
• Number 6 : Special Articles on Health Humanities and General Articles

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Editorial Columns

From the archive, editorial introduction: poetics of self-construal in postcolonial literature, editorial introduction to “current and future directions in tesol studies”, approaching and re-stating the question of global anxieties: some suggestions for psychology and therapy studies, editorial introduction: the saga of the a·bri dal·gipa: the ontological turn in northeast studies, rethinking, narrating, consuming modern and contemporary southeast asia, experiencing and writing east asian (post)modernity, the ideological limits of digital poetics, indian english is also creole: incorporating regional bias in research pedagogy, editorial introduction, featured articles.

Raw Materials. Half Creatures and Complete Nature in Shelley’s Frankenstein and Homunculus in Goethe’s Faust II

Siv Frøydis Berg Associate professor, Ph.D., National Library of Norway. Email: [email protected] Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue 3, September-October 2022, Pages 1–8.

The Idea of the Border in the Digital Age

Debra A. Castillo1 & Parthasarathi Bhaumik2 1Professor, Cornell University. Email id: [email protected]. 2Associate Professor, Jadavpur University, India. Email: [email protected] Rupkatha Journal, Vol. 14, Issue

The Resonance of Music Across Cultures

Rolf J. Goebel, Ph.D. Distinguished Prof. of German, Emeritus, University of Alabama in Huntsville. Email: [email protected]  Volume 13, Number 3, 2021 I Full Text PDF

Haptic Perception Meets Interface Aesthetics: Cultural Representations of Touchscreen Technology in the Aftermath of the iPhone 2007

Katheryn Wright Associate Professor, Core Division, Champlain College, USA ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6485-9549. Email: [email protected] Volume IX, Number 3, 2017 I Full Text PDF

“Walls of Freedom”: Street Art and Structural Violence in the Global City

Dominic Davies English Faculty, University of Oxford, UK. Email: [email protected] Volume 9, Number 2, 2017 I Full Text PDF DOI: 10.21659/rupkatha.v9n2.02  Received

Book Reviews

Book Review: Queersapien by Sharif D. Rangnekar

Publisher: Rupa Publications India; First Edition (1 December 2022); Rupa Publications India Language: English. Hardcover: 208 pages ISBN-10: 9355208103. ISBN-13: 978-9355208101 Reviewed

Book Review: Spiritual Sensations: Cinematic Religious Experience and Evolving Conceptions of the Sacred by Sarah K. Balstrup

Publisher: Bloomsbury Academic Date of Publication: 2021 Language: English ISBN: 9781350130173 Reviewed by Anton Karl Kozlovic School of Communication and Creative Arts,

Gender Queer: A Memoir by Maia Kobabe

Gender Queer: A Memoir. Author: Maia Kobabe. Publication Date: 2019. Pages: 240. Publisher: Lion Forge. ISBN: 978-1-5493-0400-2. Reviewed by Anjitha Tom   Christ

Book Review: The Third Eye and Other Works: Mahatma Phule’s Writings on Education by Rohini Mokashi-Punekar

Orient Blackswan, 2023, New Delhi, Rs.855, ISBN-978-93-5442-380-2. Reviewed by Kumuda Chandra Panigrahi Assistant Professor of Sociology, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, West Bengal Rupkatha Journal,

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Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences

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Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences (FJHSS) is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes research papers across all academic disciplines in the humanities and social sciences. The Journal aims to promote multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies, bridge diverse communities of the humanities and social sciences in the world, provide a platform of academic exchange for scholars and readers from all countries and all regions, promote intellectual development in China’s humanities and social sciences, and encourage original, theoretical, and empirical research into new areas, new issues, and new subject matters. Coverage in FJHSS emphasizes the combination of a “local” focus (e.g., a country- or region-specific perspective) with a “global” concern, and engages in the international scholarly dialogue by offering comparative or global analyses and discussions from multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary perspectives. The journal features special topics, special issues, and original articles of general interest in the disciplines of humanities and social sciences. The journal also invites leading scholars as guest editors to organize special issues or special topics devoted to certain important themes, subject matters, and research agendas in the humanities and social sciences.

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The dynamics of debt bondage in pakistan: causes and consequences.

• Abdul Wahid
• Nancy H. Mantell
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Political Meritocracy Based on Public Reason

• Wang Zhiwei
• Daniel A. Bell

Interreligious Testimonial Dialogue in the Immanent Frame of a Secular Age

• Andrew Tsz Wan Hung

Positive Affect, Positive Evaluation, or Positive Functioning? Bringing Positive Psychology into the Dialog of Effectuation

• Daan van Knippenberg

On the Relationship Between Factor Loadings and Component Loadings When Latent Traits and Specificities are Treated as Latent Factors

• Kentaro Hayashi
• Ke-Hai Yuan
• Peter M. Bentler

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Big Data and artificial intelligence will have a profound impact on governments in China and around the world, and therefore on the global governance. We call for papers to respond to the issues and challenges, and intend to provide a platform for scholars in the research areas across the world to engage in academic exchanges and discussions on these topics and jointly contribute to our better understanding of the issues in the contemporary world today.

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Welcome to college!  

Congrats on making it this far! You’ve spent the last year and a half or so of your life doing tedious research, going on campus tours, hunting down people who like you enough to write recommendation letters, filling out applications, having mental breakdowns and—most importantly—writing a college essay. Now, you’re probably thinking if that essay was good enough to get you into college, you must be pretty good at writing essays, right?

Fast forward a little bit. You’ve registered for a humanities class or two, and boom : you have a research paper due in two weeks. But you’re not worried because you had this on lock in high school: A three-part thesis, five paragraphs, add a little garlic for extra fragrance, sauté, and voilà! You have an A+ ! Or so you think, until you get maybe a B– , and in your unadulterated terror and confusion, you burst into your professor’s office and ask why your perfectly formulated essay garnered you anything less than an A . 

And that’s where they drop the bomb on you: your essay was too formulaic. Too mechanical. It looked *stock horror violins* like a high-school essay! 

You’re devastated. Your world has been shattered. Your academic career during K–12 has been a sham. You don’t even know who you are anymore. You mournfully tell them that your high-school education has stunted your essay-writing abilities and inflated your ego, and, in yet another moment of hubris, you ask if there’s anything you can do to change your grade. 

But there isn’t. There never is. 

Your professor patiently tries to explain to you exactly what went wrong, but you’re too panicked to take away anything from the conversation besides “don’t write like this.”  But you don’t know how else to write academic essays. You leave their office absolutely distraught and are frantically wondering, “How else am I supposed to write?” 

Since this exact scenario may or may not be coming from personal experience, I’m willing to bet that’s how you ended up at this nifty little article here. Well, maybe not that exact scenario (for your dignity and sanity’s sake, I hope not) but you are at least sitting with the question, “How do I write a college essay that doesn’t follow the three-part thesis, five-paragraph format?” As someone with several years of experience writing college essays who also had to throw out everything I thought I knew, I’d like to share with you some high-quality, gamer-approved, pro tips on the entire essay writing process. And when I say the entire process, I mean it. 

Time-management tips to help you the whole way

This probably goes without saying, but do try and keep deadlines in mind. Put them on your calendar; set a reminder—you know the drill. 

But turning something in by the deadline that you did during one all-nighter isn’t what I mean. That’s the complete opposite of time management. Instead, try to develop a sense of how long it takes you to get things done. Do you just galaxy brain the moment you open up Microsoft Word and crank out five pages in an hour and a half? Great!se the extra time to edit. Does your brain turn to TV static the moment you finish your MLA heading? That’s OK. Just make sure you get an early start and plan breaks so you don’t frustrate yourself. Again, timely does not mean all at once. If you know how long it takes you to accomplish certain tasks, you can fit working on your essay into your schedule better and won’t have to cram everything in at the last minute. It’ll feel like less of a gargantuan task if you spread the work out into smaller chunks over a longer period of time. 

Pick a topic

Although some professors may tell you exactly what they want you to write about, it’s more likely that you’ll be given a list of open-ended topics to choose from or you’ll be able to come up with your own topic as long as they approve it. This can be great for some people who are really enthusiastic about the class and have a lot of ideas already swimming around. For others, you can practically hear the crickets chirping while you stare blankly at your essay guidelines. Here are some ways you can strike a good balance between a fun and a practical paper:

• Again, make sure your topic is something you’re at least mildly interested in. It’ll make the writing process more enjoyable and make for a more compelling read. Readers, including your professor, can usually tell how much care went into a piece of writing, and that will go a long way regarding the reception of it.
• The types of sources your topic will need are usually pretty intuitive. For example, if you’re writing a critical response to a text, you’ll probably need to cite existing critical responses to back you up. Or if you’re writing about what it was like to live in a certain place at a certain time, some primary sources might be in order.
• Keep in mind the plausibility of there being available sources. Something super contemporary might not have a lot of existing research surrounding it, and what does exist might not be peer reviewed. 
• Keeping your question specific will help whittle down how much research you will need to do, but there is such a thing as too niche a topic (see above).
• Try to have a backup. Your topic might not be super researchable once you get to looking or might not be as interesting as you thought it would be.
• Run everything by your professor. They can provide good insight regarding the intrigue and researchability of your topic so you know whether you’re heading in the right direction before you invest too much time and effort.

The research

You’ve used the above information to help you formulate a professor-approved topic as well as a plan B. Now it’s time for you to hit Google and start gathering research. And while the old trick of using literally anything other than Wikipedia was enough in high school, you will likely encounter the phrase “peer reviewed” when looking at the source requirements for your paper. This means that you need to be looking for scholarly sources by experts that have been reviewed by other experts in that field. But how could you possibly know that?

The good news is that there are these incredible things known as academic databases that contain literally nothing but scholarly resources. You might actually be somewhat familiar with these if you ever used Google Scholar and found what you thought was the perfect source, only to click on the link and have the website tell you that you need to pay money if you want to read anything besides the abstract. Thankfully, full access to academic databases will usually be provided by your college. So now that you know where to look, here’s how to go about your research: 

• Make a list of keywords and keyphrases relating to your topic. This will come in handy because you usually won’t turn up many results if you type your question word for word into a database’s search bar. 
• JSTOR is your best friend. Just type in your keywords or keyphrase into the search bar, and you’ll be greeted with an almost overwhelming amount of results. You can narrow things down based on different types of sources: academic journal articles (usually the most abundant and most helpful), book chapters, research reports, and pamphlets. You can also search for content tagged by subject. Each search result will also have a list of topics, which is an additional set of keywords you can use for your research. You can also narrow it down to a range of publication years. Beyond being well organized, all sources on there are peer-reviewed, scholarly sources.
• Related to JSTOR, there is also a database called ARTSTOR that contains an immense library of visual media, from museum pieces to illustrations. Images are sources, too, and if you’re required to cite one, this is a great place to look.

Although databases like JSTOR are immensely helpful, there will inevitably come a moment when you need to find something that just isn’t there. The rest of the Internet obviously isn’t devoid of useful sources, but you will need to use a more discerning eye. 

• You’ve heard it from your teachers for years, and you’re going to hear it again from me: don’t use Wikipedia. However, it is not totally useless. Check the sources at the bottom of the article; there’s usually a hidden gem or two every now and again.
• Google Scholar isn’t just good for psyching you out by showing you sources that are behind a paywall. You can actually find a lot of book sources on there via Google Books. You may have to have books be a part of your citations, and if you can’t find a helpful one on JSTOR, you may just find it through Google Scholar.
• Websites ending in .gov or .edu will usually be more reliable because, as the extensions imply, they are run by government agencies or educational institutions. But, as with most things, caution and common sense must be exercised. 
• Lastly are things I like to call “metasources.” As with Wikipedia, this is where you look at the citations of another source. If you’ve found a source that’s already helpful, there’s a good chance it’ll send you in the direction of other good sources, which can be a great timesaver! 

Planning and outlining your paper (I’m begging you not to skip this step; please just hear me out)

I’m a big fan of outlining. I know some of you reading this have gotten into the habit of just opening up a Word document and just trucking along with your paper, and while I won’t stop you (although I absolutely cannot relate), I do want to champion the benefits that come with outlining. First and foremost, it’ll improve how your essay is organized. Your thoughts will already be in a logical order, and it’s easier to move paragraphs and ideas around before you end up writing a really good sentence you get attached to but just doesn’t fit anymore. Outlining also prevents or at least minimizes writer’s block. If you have an outline, you’ll always have at least somewhat of an idea about what’s coming next, and if you lose your train of thought while you’re writing, that’s OK—you’ll have the outline to reference! 

Now that you’re sold on the idea of outlining because why wouldn’t you be, how can you go about it?

• Often, a simple bulleted list will suffice. Just putting your ideas in the order you want to talk about them will strengthen the logical flow of your paper before you even begin drafting it. But if you’re a more visual person, put all of your ideas onto sticky notes and put them up on a board or wall. It’s extra easy to reorder things that way.
• Come up with your thesis. This is going to be the backbone of your paper, and everything you discuss needs to relate to it somehow. If your thesis is strong, it will usually be fairly easy to generate the rest of the paper. Decide on the kind of evidence you are going to provide to building on your thesis. This can be done by either referencing what kind of sources you’ll be citing or summarizing them. Briefly trace the steps you’ve taken to reach your claim. The body paragraphs will expand upon those steps.
• Run everything by your professor, especially your thesis statement. Just letting them know what you’re thinking of doing will go a long way in helping you plan a stronger paper before you start writing. After all, it’d be a real bummer if you came up with a thesis, wrote your whole essay around it, and asked your professor to look at your draft only for them to say it doesn’t work.

Actually writing

Now it’s time to write. But before you do, I’m going to let you in on what is probably the most important tip I can give you, especially in regards to combating the five-paragraph essay: Write organically! If you write in the way that comes most naturally to you, your authorial voice will be more present. There will be more of you in the paper, and it will make for a more interesting read and compelling argument. Give yourself room for creative freedom. 

Honestly, if that was your only takeaway from this guide, I’d be more than happy. I wish I had known that I was able to do this in the beginning, but sometimes we feel like we need permission to change the way we do things, especially when it comes to school. So for those of you who need it, I am not only giving you permission but even encouraging you to write how you want to write. 

Of course, writing a college essay isn’t just about putting heart into it;there’s some technique involved as well. The following advice, however, pertains mostly to my own preferred style. If you like, you can always try them on for size and see :

• Spice up your punctuation. Diversifying how you split up and deliver sentences will give you stronger control over the pacing of your essay. For example, if you want to deliver a particularly hard-hitting line, use an em dash (—). It’s sort of the written equivalent of a dramatic pause and can let your reader know you’re about to deliver some hot takes.
• Weave (properly cited) quotes into your own prose. You’ll know you’ve done it correctly when you read the paper aloud and it’s nearly impossible to distinguish quotations from your own writing. So rather than saying something like “according to ____” or “as stated by ____,” you write around the quoted material. This will improve the flow of your paper.  
• Put down the thesaurus! Purple prose will just distract from your ideas and come off as inauthentic. I know we all want to make Oscar Wilde proud, but your college essays aren’t the place to do it. 

You’re done! Except you’re not.

Now it’s time for my favorite part: proofreading. And, just like outlining, do not skip this step. I don’t care how good you think your paper is; I know you missed something: a skipped word, a misplaced apostrophe, a sentence that needs omitting. Even if you get to do an official rough draft and then a final draft, it’s better to take the sand-blaster to the rough draft and the glass file to the final draft than the other way around. It’ll save you a lot of time and frustration because I know it can be a little disheartening to get back a draft covered in red ink. 

• Put some distance between yourself and your work. You’re gonna get so used to reading the same thing over and over that you’ll start to miss stuff. Do whatever you need to to make it feel new again, whether that’s giving yourself a day away from it or playing around with the margins or font (let me tell you, reading something in Comic Sans is a whole different experience than Times New Roman; just remember to change fonts again before you turn it in).
• Not sure if that comma is in the right place? How do you use a semicolon? If you aren’t sure, look it up. Plenty of universities have online writing center resources with answers to these exact questions. 
• Read it aloud. Note any mistakes. Fix them. Read it aloud again. Repeat. Got a roommate or friend who will be a mildly tolerant audience? Even better. And yes, I know you’re going to feel weird doing it, but it is an absolute lifesaver and one of the best things you can do in the editing phase, and I will die standing on this hill. Read. It. Aloud. 

Bold of you to assume I was finished

The essay odyssey doesn’t end when you turn it in, and neither will I! So you’ve done all of the above, you got that paper written (congratulations!), and you finally, finally got it back from your professor, annnnnnd … it wasn’t the grade you were hoping for. Before I get into my spiel about coping with these kinds of things, here’s some quick advice on doing something productive with a less-than-ideal grade: 

• If you want to better understand why you got the grade you did, again, go to your professor’s office hours and talk to them about it. You’ll get a better understanding of what you can improve on. The rubric (if you get one) isn’t going to cover every little nuance of how they grade, so if you don’t know, ask.Save all of your work, regardless of the grade! Your professor’s constructive criticism and praise will be invaluable resources in improving all subsequent work and providing a little reassurance along the way. 

Granted, if you followed at least most of the suggestions here, your grade is probably going to be more than fine, but hey, these things happen, right? Maybe you misunderstood the prompt or couldn’t make time to go over it with other people. Maybe life got in the way, or it just didn’t quite come together. We can follow all the practical advice in the world but still just not be in the right headspace to write, and that’s OK. Your “best” isn’t a fixed measure of performanceL your “best” for one week may not be as good as your “best” the week before. Don’t stress over a B or a C– , especially if it’s the first paper you’ve written for that class. It took me a long time to figure that out. This isn’t just about breaking bad writing habits; it’s about breaking unhealthy habits about how we view our own productivity and success. So here are my final suggestions:

• Don’t be so hard on yourself.
• And remember: you’re always going to be a better writer by the last sentence than you were when you wrote the first. Develop good habits and practice, and there’s nothing you can do except improve.

Good luck, guys, and happy writing! 

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Jeffrey R. Wilson

• Aphorisms on Structure for Research Papers in the Humanities

Because of the infinite variety of approaches that can be taken and combined in a research paper, you may find you need to combine aspects from different structural models. 

Introduction

The Q-and-A

Paragraph 1: The Question

• Orientation
• Question/Problem1

Paragraph 2: The Literature Review

• Text Statement
• Critical Citations
• Question/Problem2

Paragraph 3: The Answer

• When to use : when your essay is built around analyzing a single text or topic. 
• Create a section break after the first paragraph. 
• Your literature review may very well be more than one paragraph.
• After the end of the introduction, create a section break, and start the body of the essay.

The Surface Reading / Closer Reading

Paragraph 1: The Literature Review

Paragraph 2: The Closer Reading

• Response (i.e., Question/Problem)
• When to use : when there’s a commonly accepted interpretation in a field that you’re going to oppose/complicate/develop; when you don’t have any fancy methodology (it’s just a straightforward close reading).

The New Phenomenon

Paragraph 1: Question/Problem 

• Textual Evidence

Paragraphs 2-?: The Literature Review 

• Historical Evidence
• Historical Citations

Paragraph 3: The Thesis

• When to use: when the text(s) and/or topic you’re addressing is so new that there hasn’t been any scholarly work on it.
• Your first paragraph should identify the text(s) you’re looking at and the question(s)/problem(s) you’re addressing.
• Since there hasn’t been any scholarship on your text(s), your literature review should address the tradition your topic grows out of / is the latest example of.
• In your literature review, the presentation of Historical Evidence (the things in the past that happened) and Historical Citations (scholars interpreting those things from the past) will be interwoven.
• Structure the literature review chronologically based on the Historical Evidence, peppering in Historical Citations as relevant. 
• It’s likely that this literature review will be longer than one paragraph, since there’s so much content to cover. Treat it like a body section.
• Your Question/Problem2 should address how this new phenomenon you’re addressing is different or may alter the conversations scholars are having about this tradition. 

The Abstract

Paragraph 1: The Argument

• Critical Citation(s)
• Method Statement
• Thesis Statement

Paragraph 2: The Roadmap

• When to use : when using lots of quantitative analysis (data, statistics, charts); when adopting a scientific rather than humanistic voice.
• One sentence per element, except…
• Maybe two sentences for Thesis.
• Maybe two-to-four sentences for Evidence.
• After the Roadmap Paragraph, create a section break and start the body of the essay.
• Since there’s not a full literature review in the introduction, make one of your body sections (early in the essay) a literature review.

The Exemplar

Paragraph 1: Exemplar Paragraph

Paragraph 2: Thesis Paragraph

Paragraph 3: The Literature Review

• When to use : when there’s a perfect, easy-to-understand illustration of your argument that can be covered in a paragraph.
• In the opening paragraph, instead of developing a question/problem, make a point.
• That point can then be extrapolated into your thesis.
• Include a section break after the Thesis Paragraph.
• Because you’ve already delivered your Thesis, your literature review should state at the beginning how your argument advances the scholarly conversation. 
• After the Literature review, create a section break and start the body of the essay.
• Because this introduction doesn’t identify the driving Question/Problem of the essay, make the first paragraph of the body a Question/Problem Paragraph: Orientation, Textual Evidence, Analysis, Question/Problem1

The Cannonball

Paragraph 1: The Thesis

Section 2: Question/Problem

Section 3: The Literature Review

Section 4: The Method

• Theoretical Citation(s)
• When to use: when you know that it’s going to take you multiple paragraphs to cover your question/problem, literature review, and/or method.
• Your first sentence is your thesis. 
• Since you immediately stated your thesis, you’ve got more leeway to develop the framing material in multiple paragraphs: your readers will stick with you because they know where it’s all going. 
• Because you’ve already delivered your thesis, your Question/Problem paragraphs can state at the beginning how your argument resolves the driving question. 
• Similarly, your literature review should state at the beginning how your argument advances the scholarly conversation. 
• In your essay, create a section break between each of these four sections.

The Stakes First

Paragraph 1: What’s at Stake

• Orientation to Stakes
• Evidence for Stakes
• Analysis for Stakes
• Question/Problem for Stakes

Paragraphs 2-?: Literature Review for the Stakes 

• Question/Problem2 

Paragraph 3: Method / Thesis

• Method / Text Statement

Paragraph 4: Question/Problem

Paragraph 5: Literature Review for the Text

• When to use : when you want to emphasize the implications of your argument; when writing a presentist essay.
• Start by laying out the Question/Problem that your Thesis is the answer to: not the problem in your text that needs interpretation, but a bigger-picture problem. That’s what’s at stake in this essay.
• That topic just introduced in the first paragraph then receives a literature review in the second: what previous scholarship has been done on that big-picture topic?
• Note that this introduction will have two literature reviews—one for the level of the stakes, and one for the level of the text. 
• The key sentence is the Method / Text Statement at the start of Paragraph 3. This is where you explain that the Question/Problem for Stakes can be resolved by turning to your text and argument. 
• Then deliver your Thesis. 
• Create a section break after your Thesis. 
• Next, establish your Question/Problem1 (why your text needs interpretation), since you haven’t yet done that. 
• Now provide a literature review of previous scholarship related to that Question/Problem1.
• Then create a section break and begin the body of the essay.

The Comparative Essay

Paragraph 1: The Situation

• Orientation to Text 1
• Orientation to Context 1
• Orientation to Context 2
• Orientation to Text 2

Paragraph 2: The Question

• Evidence from Text 1
• Evidence from Text 2  
• Question/Problem

Paragraph 4: Method and Thesis

• When to use : when using some shared feature of two texts to discuss some larger similarity or difference in context.
• Create a section break after the second paragraph, and another after the thesis.
• A comparative essay usually gives equal weight to both texts.
• In the body of the essay, don’t jump back and forth between your two texts in a single paragraph. It’s too disorienting for your reader to introduce new evidence and new analysis from two different texts all at once.
• Instead, cover your first text in full in a large section, then shift over to covering your second text in full in its own large section. That second large section may refer back to the analyses you did earlier. 

The Lens Essay

• Orientation Related to Target Text
• Evidence Related to Target Text
• Analysis Related to Target Text
• Question/Problem Related to Target Text

Paragraph 3: The Lens

• Theoretical Citations

Paragraph 4: The Thesis

• When to use : when you want to use one text (usually philosophical or theoretical) to explain what’s going on in another text usually (usually historical or artistic). 
• Create a section break after the first paragraph, and another after the thesis paragraph. 
• You can think of one of your texts as the “target text”—the thing being interpreted—and the other as a “helper text” that’s allowing you to do your interpretation.
• In all likelihood, the two texts involved in the essay will not receive equal weight (the target text will receive more attention, the helper text less).
• If it will take you more than one paragraph to provide an overview of your “helper text,” shift that material down to the start of the body of the essay. Still give a sentence or two in the introduction to your method, but then go straight into your thesis, saving the substance of your “helper text“ for the body. 
• In the body of the essay, as you unpack your “target text,“ you should return to specific ideas and rotations from your “helper text“ to enhance your analysis.

The Test-a-Theory Essay

Paragraph 1: The Prevailing Theory

• Orientation related to the Theory
• Evidence related to the Theory
• Analysis related to the Theory
• Question/Problem related to the Theory

Paragraph 3: The New Data Set

• Orientation to the Data Set

Paragraph 4: The New Theory

• When to use : when you want to use a new example or data set to challenge and older, established theory; when you want to develop a new, better theory. 
• If you fully endorse the theory at hand, don’t write a test a theory essay; write a lens essay that uses that theory to unpack evidence.

The Historicist Essay

Paragraph 3: The Context

• Orientation to Historical Text(s)
• When to use : when contextualizing a text in the circumstances that produced it will reveal a new understanding not available when simply looking at that text in isolation.
• Be sure to identify your “target text”—the thing being interpreted—and the “helper text(s)” being used to enhance your interpretation.

Paragraph 1: Your Argument

Paragraph 2: What’s at Stake

• Method/Text for the Implications
• Orientation for the Implications
• Evidence for the Implications
• Analysis for the Implications
• Question/Problem for the Implications

Paragraph 3-?: Literature Review for the Implications

• Critical Citations for the Implications
• Analysis of those Critical Citations
• Question/Problem2 for the Implications

Paragraph 4: Implications, Part I (The Idea)

• The Argument of the Implications

Paragraph 5: Implications, Part II (The Illustration)

• Evidence and Analysis supporting the Argument of the Implications
• Transition from the end of the body into the start by addressing the most compelling counter argument to your thesis.
• Responding to that counter – showing the error of his ways, describing how your position is ultimately more satisfactory – sets you up to synthesize together the totality of your main argument. Remember that an argument statement is different from a thesis statement: The thesis is a short, accessible, easy to understand, one or two sentence statement of your central idea; the argument is a summary of all the thinking and evidence that support your thesis, written out in a full paragraph.
• Transition from your argument to your implications by describing how the ideas presented in your argument bring with them the power to elucidate other things. That’s what you describe in the key sentence on your Method/Text for the Implications. 
• Your text for the Implications  is the topic thing being interpreted in your conclusion, which should be different the text Dash the thing being interpreted Dash in the overall essay. Your method for the implications is your description of how you’re using your argument to interpret that new text for the implications.
• Note that, if you spent significant time in the introduction developing what’s at stake, you don’t need to rehash that material in the conclusion. 
• After explaining how that you’re going to use your argument to interpret text your applications right a short question problem statement for the text of your implications. A little orientation, a little evidence, a little analysis, and then the question/problem that will be resolved by looking through the lens of your argument.
• Next comes Part I of your implications – the Idea. This is where you see rise your argument into abstract terms that are not bound to the specifics of the text from which it came. 
• Part II of your implications— The illustration –returns to some concrete examples to show your the idea in action.
• Aphorisms on Academic Writing
• Aphorisms on Rhetoric
• Aphorisms on the Writing Process
• Aphorisms on the Elements of Academic Argument
• Aphorisms on Structure
• Aphorisms on Structure for Single-Source Essays
• Aphorisms on Structure for Multi-Source Essays
• Aphorisms on Structure for Theoretical Papers in the Social Sciences
• Aphorisms on Structure for Empirical Papers
• Aphorisms on Outlines
• Aphorisms on Prose
• Aphorisms on Literature
• Aphorisms for the Social Sciences
• Aphorisms on Higher Education
• Other Handouts and Aids
• Sample Papers