electric charges physics experiment

Charge and Carry

Tired of electrostatic experiments that just won’t work? This experiment will produce a spark that you can feel, see, and hear. Rub a foam plate with wool to give it a large electric charge, then use the charged foam to charge an aluminum pie pan. The entire apparatus for charging the aluminum plate is called an electrophorus —Greek for "charge carrier." An even larger charge can be stored up in a device called a Leyden jar, made from a plastic bottle.

For the electrophorus:

Plastic foam cup
Disposable aluminum pie pan
Plastic foam dinner plate or flat sheet of plastic foam packing material (the kind used to pack electronic devices)—the thicker, the better
Piece of wool or acrylic cloth (other fabrics may work, but wool and acrylic will definitely work)

Optional—for the Leyden jar:

A plastic 35mm film canister or similar-sized plastic container, such as a pill bottle
A nail slightly longer than the film canister
Aluminum foil

Related Snacks

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Lecture Demonstration Manual
Lab Manuals
Instructional Videos
PhotoSpheres

Experiment 3 - Electrostatics

Experiment 4 - Van de Graaff
Experiment 5 - Electrical Circuits
Experiment 6 - The Charge-to-Mass Ratio of the Electron
Two Lucite rods
Rough plastic rod
Stand with stirrup holder
Pith balls on hanger
Electroscope
Electrophorus
Coulomb's Law (charging pads not needed)

INTRODUCTION

This experiment consists of many short demonstrations in electrostatics. In most of the exercises, you do not take data, but record a short description of your observations. If high-humidity conditions prevent you from completing certain parts, you may try them again next week with the Van de Graaff experiments.

The fundamental concept in electrostatics is electrical charge . We are all familiar with the fact that rubbing two materials together — for example, a rubber comb on cat fur — produces a “static” charge. This process is called charging by friction . Surprisingly, the exact physics of the process of charging by friction is poorly understood. However, it is known that the making and breaking of contact between the two materials transfers the charge.

The charged particles which make up the universe come in three kinds: positive, negative, and neutral. Neutral particles do not interact with electrical forces. Charged particles exert electrical and magnetic forces on one another, but if the charges are stationary , the mutual force is very simple in form and is given by Coulomb's Law:

\begin{eqnarray} F_{\textrm{E}} &=& kqQ/r^2, \end{eqnarray}

where $F_{\textrm{E}}$ is the electrical force between any two stationary charged particles with charges $q$ and $Q$ (measured in coulombs), $r$ is the separation between the charges (measured in meters), and $k$ is a constant of nature (equal to 9×10 9 Nm 2 /C 2 in SI units).

The study of the Coulomb forces among arrangements of stationary charged particles is called electrostatics . Coulomb's Law describes three properties of the electrical force:

The force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charges, and is directed along the straight line that connects their centers.

The force is proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges.

Two particles of the same charge exert a repulsive force on each other, and two particles of opposite charge exert an attractive force on each other.

Most of the common objects we deal with in the macroscopic (human-sized) world are electrically neutral. They are composed of atoms that consist of negatively charged electrons moving in quantum motion around a positively charged nucleus. The total negative charge of the electrons is normally exactly equal to the total positive charge of the nuclei, so the atoms (and therefore the entire object) have no net electrical charge. When we charge a material by friction, we are transferring some of the electrons from one material to another.

Materials such as metals are conductors . Each metal atom contributes one or two electrons that can move relatively freely through the material. A conductor will carry an electrical current . Other materials such as glass are insulators . Their electrons are bound tightly and cannot move. Charge sticks on an insulator, but does not move freely through it.

A neutral particle is not affected by electrical forces. Nevertheless, a charged object will attract a neutral macroscopic object by the process of electrical polarization . For example, if a negatively charged rod is brought close to an isolated, neutral insulator, the electrons in the atoms of the insulator will be pushed slightly away from the negative rod, and the positive nuclei will be attracted slightly toward the negative rod. We say that the rod has induced polarization in the insulator, but its net charge is still zero. The polarization of charge in the insulator is small, but now its positive charge is a bit closer to the negative rod, and its negative charge is a bit farther away. Thus, the positive charge is attracted to the rod more strongly than the negative charge is repelled, and there is an overall net attraction. (Do not confuse electrical polarization with the polarization of light, which is an entirely different phenomenon.)

If the negative rod is brought near an isolated, neutral conductor, the conductor will also be polarized. In the conductor, electrons are free to move through the material, and some of them are repelled over to the opposite surface of the conductor, leaving the surface near the negative rod with a net positive charge. The conductor has been polarized, and will now be attracted to the charged rod.

Now if we connect a conducting wire or any other conducting material from the polarized conductor to the ground, we provide a “path” through which the electrons can move. Electrons will actually move along this path to the ground. If the wire or path is subsequently disconnected, the conductor as a whole is left with a net positive charge. The conductor has been charged without actually being touched with the charged rod, and its charge is opposite that of the rod. This procedure is called charging by induction .

THE ELECTROSCOPE

An electroscope is a simple instrument to detect the presence of electric charge. The old electroscopes consisted of a box or cylinder with a front glass wall so the experimenter could look inside, and an insulating top through which a conducting rod with a ball or disk (called an electrode) on top entered the box. At the bottom of the rod, very thin gold leaves were folded over hanging down, or perhaps a gold leaf hung next to a fixed vane. Gold was used because it is a good conductor and very ductile; it can be made very thin and light. When charge was transferred to the top, the gold leaves would become charged and repel each other. Their divergence indicated the presence of charge.

A modern electroscope such as the one used in your experiments consists of a fixed insulated vane, to which is attached a delicately balanced movable vane or needle. When charge is brought near the top electrode, the movable vane moves outward, being repelled by the fixed vane.

ELECTROSTATICS AND HUMIDITY

We are all familiar with the fact that cold, dry days are “hot” for electrostatics, and we get small shocks after walking across a rug and touching a door knob, or sliding across a car seat and touching the metal of the car door. If the humidity is fairly low on the day of your lab, the experiments will proceed easily. If the humidity is extremely low, as is often the case in Southern California, you will probably not escape the lab without a direct experience with electrostatics! If the humidity is high, as it is sometimes in the summer, the experiments are more difficult, and some may be impossible.

If the experiments are difficult on the first week of the electrostatics lab, they will be left up so you can try some of them with the Van de Graaff experiments in the following lab.

When the air is humid, a thin, invisible film of water forms on all surfaces, particularly on the surfaces of the insulators in the experiment. This film conducts away the charges before they have a chance to build up. You can ameliorate this effect somewhat by shining a heat lamp on the insulators in the apparatus. Do not bring the heat lamp too close, or the insulators will be melted.

EXPERIMENTS

EFFECT OF HUMIDITY

Record your observations in writing either on the computer (e.g., in Microsoft Word) or on your own paper. If writing by hand, write clearly, legibly, and neatly so that anyone, especially your TA, can read it easily. Start each observation with the section number and step number (e.g., I-2 for the step below). You do not need to repeat the question. Not all steps have observations to record.

Record in your notes the relative humidity in the room (from the wall meter) and the inside and outside temperature.

For this experiment, do not shine the flood lamp on the electroscope. Be prepared to start your timer. You may use the stopwatch function of your wristwatch.

Rub the lucite rod vigorously with the silk cloth. Use a little whipping motion at the end of the rubbing. Touch the lucite rod to the top of the electroscope. Move the rod along and around the top so you touch as much of its surface to the metal of the electroscope as possible. Since the rod is an insulator, charge will not flow from all parts of the rod onto the electroscope; you need to touch all parts (except where you are holding it) to the electroscope. Start your timer immediately after charging the electroscope.

Record the time it takes the electroscope needle to fall completely to 0°. Time up to five minutes, if necessary. If the needle has not fallen to 0° after five minutes, record an estimate of its angle at the five-minute mark. Typically, after charging, the needle might be at 80°.

If the electroscope needle falls to 0° in a few minutes, the heat lamp will help in the experiments below. If the needle falls to 0° in 15 seconds or so, as it does on some summer days, you will probably have difficulty completing the experiments, even with the help of the heat lamp. If this is the case, you can try again next week.

ATTRACTION AND REPULSION OF CHARGES

In this section, you will observe the characteristics of the two types of charges, and verify experimentally that opposite charges attract and like charges repel.

Two lucite rods
One rough plastic rod

Charge one lucite rod by rubbing it vigorously with silk. Place the rod into the stirrup holder as shown in Figure 7.

Rub the second lucite rod with silk, and bring it close to the first rod. What happens? Record the observations in your notes.

Rub the rough plastic rod with cat's fur, and bring this rod near the lucite rod in the stirrup. Record your observations.

For reference purposes, according to the convention originally chosen by Benjamin Franklin, the lucite rods rubbed with silk become positively charged, and the rough plastic rods rubbed with cat's fur become negatively charged. Hard rubber rods, which are also commonly used, become negatively charged.

In this section, you will observe the induced polarization of a neutral insulator and the transfer of charge by contact.

Hanger with pith balls

(The heat lamp may help to minimize humidity near the pith balls.)

Touch the pith balls with your fingers to neutralize any charge.

Charge the lucite rod by rubbing it with silk.

Bring the lucite rod close to (but not touching) the pith balls. Observe and record what happens to the balls. Explain your results. (Refer to the theory section, if necessary.)

Touch the pith balls with your finger to discharge them. Recharge the lucite rod with silk.

Touch the pith balls with the lucite rod. (Sometimes it is necessary to touch different parts of the rod to the balls.) Then bring the rod near one of the balls. What happens? Record and explain your results.

Charge the rough plastic rod with cat's fur. How does the plastic rod affect the pith balls after they have been charged with the lucite rod? Record your results.

CHARGING BY INDUCTION

Bring the lucite rod near (but not touching) the top of the electroscope, so that the electroscope is deflected.

Remove the lucite rod. What happens? Record the results your notes. Use several sentences and perhaps a diagram or two to explain the behavior of the charges in the electroscope.

Bring the lucite rod near the electroscope again so that it is deflected. Hold the rod in this position, and briefly touch the top of the electroscope with your other finger. Keep the rod in position. What happens? Record the results in your notes.

With the electroscope deflected as a result of the operations above, bring the charged lucite rod near the electroscope again. Remove the lucite rod, and bring a charged rough plastic rod near the electroscope. What happens in each case? Record the results in your notes.

ELECTROPHORUS

The electrophorus is a simple electrostatic induction device invented by Alessandro Volta around 1770. Volta characterized it as “an inexhaustible source of charge”. In its present form, the electrophorus consists of a lucite plate on which rests a flat metal plate with an insulating handle.

The lucite plate is positively charged by being rubbed with silk. Because lucite is an insulator, it remains charged until the charge leaks off slowly. The metal plate does not pick up this positive charge, even though it rests on the lucite. The plate actually makes contact with the lucite in only a few places; and because lucite is an insulator, charge does not transfer easily from it. Instead, when you touch the metal plate, electrons from your body (attracted by the positive lucite plate) flow onto the metal plate. Your body thus acts as an “electrical ground”. The metal plate is negatively charged by induction. Because the positive charge is not “used up”, the metal plate can be charged repeatedly by induction.

(The heat lamp shining on the equipment may improve its operation.)

Charge the electrophorus lucite plate by rubbing it with silk. A whipping motion toward the end of the rubbing may help. Usually the lucite needs to be charged only once for the entire experiment.

Place the metal plate on the center of the lucite plate, and touch it with your finger. (You may feel a slight shock.)

Hold the metal plate by its insulating handle as far from the metal as possible. Bring the metal to within 2 cm of your knuckle, and then slowly closer until a (painless) spark jumps.

Recharge the metal plate by placing it back on the lucite, touching the lucite, and then lifting the plate off with its insulating handle. Bring it near your lab partner's knuckle.

Repeat the procedure until you have experienced several sparks. What is the average distance a spark will jump? Record this distance in your notes.

Recharge the metal plate, and bring it slowly near the top of the electroscope. Observe what happens with the electroscope needle.

Move the plate away from the electroscope, and record what happens with the electroscope needle. Is it still deflected? Why or why not?

Recharge the metal plate, and actually touch it to the top of the electroscope. Set the metal plate aside. Observe what happens with the electroscope needle. Is there any difference in the behavior of the needle compared to the results in procedure 6? If so, how do you account for the difference? Record this explanation in your notes.

Once again, recharge the metal plate. Hold one end of the neon tube with your fingers, and bring the metal plate slowly closer to the other end. Observe what happens with the neon tube. The induced current should create a brief flash of light. By grounding the end of the tube with your fingers, you are providing a pathway for the charges to move.

In this section, you charged the lucite plate by rubbing it at the beginning, and were then able to charge the metal plate repeatedly. Where does the charge on the metal plate come from? Where does the energy that makes the sparks and lights the tube come from? Comment in your notes.

COULOMB'S LAW

You will be testing the inverse $r$-squared dependence of Coulomb's Law with a very simple apparatus. There is a tall box containing a hanging pith ball covered with a conducting surface, and similar pith balls on sliding blocks. A mirrored scale permits you to determine the position of the balls. (The purpose of the closed box is to minimize the effects of air currents.)

The displacement $d$ of the hanging ball from its equilibrium position depends on the electrical force $F$ which repels it from the sliding ball. The force triangle of Figure 10 gives

\begin{eqnarray} \tan\phi &=& F/mg, \end{eqnarray}

while the physical triangle of the hanging ball gives

\begin{eqnarray} \sin\phi &=& d/L. \end{eqnarray}

If the angle $\phi$ is small, then $\tan\phi = \sin\phi$, and $d$ is proportional to $F$. Therefore, to demonstrate the inverse $r$-squared dependence of Coulomb's Law, we need to measure the displacement as a function of the separation between the centers of the balls.

The purpose of the mirror is to minimize parallax errors in reading the scale. For example, to measure to position of the front of the hanging ball, line up the front edge of the ball with its image. Your eye is now perpendicular to the scale, and you can read off the position. Figure 11 below shows the situation where your eye is still too high and to the right.

Coulomb's Law apparatus

Take a moment to check to position of the hanging ball in your Coulomb apparatus. Look in through the side plastic window. The hanging ball should be at the same height as the sliding ball (i.e., the top of the mirrored scale should pass behind the center of the hanging pith ball, as in Figure 12 below). Lift off the top cover and look down on the ball. The hanging ball should be centered on a line with the sliding balls. If necessary, adjust carefully the fine threads that hold the hanging ball to position it properly.

Charge the metal plate of the electrophorus in the usual way by rubbing the plastic base with silk, placing the metal plate on the base, and touching it with your finger.

Lift off the metal plate by its insulating handle, and touch it carefully to the ball on the left sliding block.

Slide the block into the Coulomb apparatus without touching the sides of the box with the ball. Slide the block in until it is close to the hanging ball. The hanging ball will be attracted by polarization, as in Section III of this lab. After it touches the sliding ball, the hanging ball will pick up half the charge and be repelled away. Repeat the procedure if necessary, pushing the sliding ball up until it touches the hanging ball.

Recharge the sliding ball so it produces the maximum force, and experiment with pushing it toward the hanging ball. The hanging ball should be repelled strongly.

You are going to measure the displacement of the hanging ball. You do not need to measure the position of its center, but will record the position of its inside edge. Remove the sliding ball and record the equilibrium position of its inside edge that faces the sliding ball, which you will subtract from all the other measurements to determine the displacement $d$.

Put the sliding ball in, and make trial measurements of the inside edge of the sliding ball and the inside edge of the hanging ball. The difference between these two measurements, plus the diameter of one of the balls, is the distance $r$ between their centers. Practice taking measurements and compare your readings with those of your lab partner until you are sure you can do them accurately. Try to estimate measurements to 0.2 mm.

Take measurements, and record the diameter of the balls (by sighting on the scale).

Remove the sliding ball, and recheck the equilibrium position of the inside edge of the hanging ball.

You can record and graph data in Excel or by hand (although if you work by hand, you will lose the opportunity for 2 mills of additional credit below). Recharge the balls as in steps 1 – 4, and record a series of measurements of the inside edges of the balls. Move the sliding ball in steps of 0.5 cm for each new measurement.

Compute columns of displacements $d$ (position of the hanging ball minus the equilibrium position) and the separations $r$ (difference between the two recorded measurements plus the diameter of one ball).

Plot (by hand or with Excel) $d$ versus $1/r^2$. Is Coulomb's Law verified?

For an additional credit of 2 mills, use Excel to fit a power-law curve to the data. What is the exponent of the $r$-dependence of the force? (Theoretically, it should be −2.000, but what does your curve fit produce?)

For your records, you may print out your Excel file with a table and graph of your numerical observations and any other electronic files you have generated.

ADDITIONAL CREDIT (3 mills)

You can change the charge on the sliding ball by factors of two, by touching it to the other uncharged sliding ball (ground it with your finger first). The balls will share their charge, and half the charge will remain on the first ball (assuming the balls are the same size). This way, you can obtain charges on the first ball of $Q$, $Q/2$, $Q/4$, and so forth.

Devise and execute an experiment to verify the dependence of the Coulomb force on the value of one of the charges. (That is, we want to show that the force is proportional to one of the charges.) The method is up to you; explain your plan and results in your notes. What should you plot against what? Does anything need to be held constant?

Introduction to Electric Charge and Electric Field

Chapter outline.

Define electric charge, and describe how the two types of charge interact.
Describe three common situations that generate static electricity.
State the law of conservation of charge.
Define conductor and insulator, explain the difference, and give examples of each.
Describe three methods for charging an object.
Explain what happens to an electric force as you move farther from the source.
Define polarization.
State Coulomb’s law in terms of how the electrostatic force changes with the distance between two objects.
Calculate the electrostatic force between two charged point forces, such as electrons or protons.
Compare the electrostatic force to the gravitational attraction for a proton and an electron; for a human and the Earth.
Describe a force field and calculate the strength of an electric field due to a point charge.
Calculate the force exerted on a test charge by an electric field.
Explain the relationship between electrical force (F) on a test charge and electrical field strength (E).
Calculate the total force (magnitude and direction) exerted on a test charge from more than one charge
Describe an electric field diagram of a positive point charge; of a negative point charge with twice the magnitude of positive charge
Draw the electric field lines between two points of the same charge; between two points of opposite charge.
Describe how a water molecule is polar.
Explain electrostatic screening by a water molecule within a living cell.
List the three properties of a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium.
Explain the effect of an electric field on free charges in a conductor.
Explain why no electric field may exist inside a conductor.
Describe the electric field surrounding Earth.
Explain what happens to an electric field applied to an irregular conductor.
Describe how a lightning rod works.
Explain how a metal car may protect passengers inside from the dangerous electric fields caused by a downed line touching the car.
Name several real-world applications of the study of electrostatics.

The image of American politician and scientist Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) flying a kite in a thunderstorm is familiar to every schoolchild. (See Figure 18.2 .) In this experiment, Franklin demonstrated a connection between lightning and static electricity . Sparks were drawn from a key hung on a kite string during an electrical storm. These sparks were like those produced by static electricity, such as the spark that jumps from your finger to a metal doorknob after you walk across a wool carpet. What Franklin demonstrated in his dangerous experiment was a connection between phenomena on two different scales: one the grand power of an electrical storm, the other an effect of more human proportions. Connections like this one reveal the underlying unity of the laws of nature, an aspect we humans find particularly appealing.

Much has been written about Franklin. His experiments were only part of the life of a man who was a scientist, inventor, revolutionary, statesman, and writer. Franklin’s experiments were not performed in isolation, nor were they the only ones to reveal connections.

For example, the Italian scientist Luigi Galvani (1737–1798) performed a series of experiments in which static electricity was used to stimulate contractions of leg muscles of dead frogs, an effect already known in humans subjected to static discharges. But Galvani also found that if he joined two metal wires (say copper and zinc) end to end and touched the other ends to muscles, he produced the same effect in frogs as static discharge. Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), partly inspired by Galvani’s work, experimented with various combinations of metals and developed the battery.

During the same era, other scientists made progress in discovering fundamental connections. The periodic table was developed as the systematic properties of the elements were discovered. This influenced the development and refinement of the concept of atoms as the basis of matter. Such submicroscopic descriptions of matter also help explain a great deal more.

Atomic and molecular interactions, such as the forces of friction, cohesion, and adhesion, are now known to be manifestations of the electromagnetic force . Static electricity is just one aspect of the electromagnetic force, which also includes moving electricity and magnetism.

All the macroscopic forces that we experience directly, such as the sensations of touch and the tension in a rope, are due to the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces in nature. The gravitational force, another fundamental force, is actually sensed through the electromagnetic interaction of molecules, such as between those in our feet and those on the top of a bathroom scale. (The other two fundamental forces, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force, cannot be sensed on the human scale.)

This chapter begins the study of electromagnetic phenomena at a fundamental level. The next several chapters will cover static electricity, moving electricity, and magnetism—collectively known as electromagnetism. In this chapter, we begin with the study of electric phenomena due to charges that are at least temporarily stationary, called electrostatics, or static electricity.

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Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/college-physics/pages/1-introduction-to-science-and-the-realm-of-physics-physical-quantities-and-units

Authors: Paul Peter Urone, Roger Hinrichs
Publisher/website: OpenStax
Book title: College Physics
Publication date: Jun 21, 2012
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Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/college-physics/pages/1-introduction-to-science-and-the-realm-of-physics-physical-quantities-and-units
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19 Engaging Electricity Science Experiments for Kids: Igniting Curiosity, Innovation, and a Love for STEM

Looking for some fun, educational activities to try with the kids? This article shares some great science experiments that teach children all about electricity. https://t.co/wRk6qoemUi pic.twitter.com/WaZGNRTeT2 — AnstandigElectric (@AnstandigE) April 25, 2022



Low	Low ($1 to $5)	Discover how static electricity can divert a stream of water, demonstrating invisible electric forces at play.
Low	Low ($1 to $5)	Learn how to attract lightweight objects with a “magic wand” charged through the power of static electricity.
Low	Low ($1 to $5)	Observe how a statically charged balloon can attract and manipulate bubble balloons without popping them.
Low	Low ($1 to $5)	Detect static electricity with a soda can, visualizing how charged objects can move without being touched.
Low	Low ($1 to $5)	Use static electricity to separate a mix of salt and pepper, showcasing the different behaviors of materials under electrostatic influence.
Low	Low ($1 to $5)	Simulate the fluttering of a butterfly using static electricity, merging science with creativity.
Low	Low ($1 to $5)	Create a spinning motor using only a battery, a magnet, and a wire to demonstrate fundamental electromagnetism.
Low	Low ($1 to $5)	Witness how a mixture of cornstarch and oil responds to static electricity, demonstrating non-traditional material conductivity.
Low	Low ($1 to $5)	Generate electricity with a lemon to power a small device, illustrating basic electrochemical energy conversion.
Middle	Low ($1 to $5)	Illuminate a light bulb using simple materials to create a basic circuit, highlighting the principles of electrical connectivity.
Middle	Low ($1 to $5)	Turn a potato into an energy source for a digital clock, exploring the chemical reactions that generate electricity.
Middle	Low ($1 to $5)	Compare how saltwater and vinegar conduct electricity differently, emphasizing the role of electrolytes.
Middle	Middle ($5 to $10)	Assemble a simple motor to understand the interaction between electricity and magnetism in creating motion.
Middle	Middle ($5 to $10)	Craft a basic power source to learn how electricity flows through circuits to power devices.
Middle	Middle ($5 to $10)	Experiment with controlling the brightness of a light bulb, introducing the concept of electrical resistance in circuits.
Middle	Middle ($5 to $10)	Combine art and science by creating functional electrical circuits on paper with conductive tape and LEDs.
Middle	Middle ($5 to $10)	Use conductive and insulating play dough to form simple circuits, introducing the basics of electricity flow and circuit design.
High	Middle ($5 to $10)	Explore electromagnetic propulsion by building a mini-train that moves along a track without physical contact.
High	High ($10 to $20)	Construct a rudimentary radio receiver using a bottle and aluminum foil to capture and translate radio waves into sound.

1. Bending Water with Static Electricity

Difficulty Level: Low

What It Teaches

Conceptual background, 2. make a magic wand.

The experiment showcases the ability of static electricity to attract objects, effectively turning a simple rod into a ‘magic wand’. This visually engaging activity helps to demystify the concept of static electricity and demonstrates its practical effects.

3. Bubble Balloons

4. soda can electroscope.

The Soda Can Electroscope experiment demonstrates how movement can be detected and visualized without direct contact, using principles of electrostatics. It aims to explore the basics of how electric charges can induce motion in everyday objects, providing a tangible demonstration of invisible forces at work.

Cost: Low ($1 to $5)

5. Separate Salt & Pepper

To see a practical demonstration of how to separate salt and pepper, watching this video is highly recommended.

Learners gain an understanding of how static electricity can be used to manipulate matter at a small scale. The experiment highlights the concept of electric charges and how they interact with different substances. Participants will explore the properties of salt and pepper particles and observe how these properties influence their behavior in an electric field.

This experiment explores the concept of static electricity and its effect on different substances. Salt and pepper respond differently to static charges due to differences in their mass and surface properties. When an object, like a comb or a plastic rod, is electrically charged through friction and brought near a mixture of salt and pepper, the lighter pepper particles are attracted to the static charge more easily than the heavier salt particles.

6. Butterfly Experiment

This experiment introduces the fascinating world of static electricity and its ability to move objects without direct contact. Children learn about the properties of materials that allow them to be influenced by electrostatic forces, illustrating a fundamental principle of physics in a visually engaging way.

This Butterfly Experiment demonstrates how even the simplest materials can be brought to life with a bit of scientific knowledge. It provides an easy-to-understand example of how electrostatic charges attract lightweight objects, mimicking the natural fluttering of a butterfly. Through this experiment, children can grasp the concept of static electricity in a memorable and enjoyable manner, fostering a deeper interest in science and the world around them.

7. Homopolar Motor

8. electric cornstarch.

Discover the fascinating world of static electricity with this simple yet captivating experiment. Using just a few kitchen items and a balloon, witness the curious behavior of a cornstarch and oil mixture as it reacts to electrostatic charges.

To learn how to conduct the Electric Cornstarch experiment, watching this demonstration video is highly recommended.

9. Simple Lemon Battery

The Paper Circuits experiment introduces the fascinating world of electronics by allowing kids to create their own functioning circuits on a piece of paper. Utilizing conductive materials and simple components, this activity bridges the gap between creative arts and science, demonstrating the basics of how electrical circuits are designed and how they function to power devices.

For an engaging demonstration on how to create a Simple Lemon Battery and understand the science behind turning a lemon into a power source, watching this video is highly recommended.

The lemon battery experiment illustrates a basic chemical reaction that generates electrical energy. Lemons contain citric acid, which reacts with two different metals (zinc and copper, for example) inserted into the lemon. This reaction creates a difference in electrical potential between the two metals, allowing an electric current to flow when they are connected by a conductor (like an alligator clip).

10. Index Card Flashlight

To see how kids can easily light up a small bulb with just aluminum foil, a battery, and an index card, viewing the demonstration video is recommended.

This experiment introduces the basic components and principles of an electrical circuit, including energy sources (batteries), conductors (aluminum foil), and loads (a light bulb). When the circuit is completed, electrons flow from the battery through the foil and light bulb, causing the bulb to illuminate. This demonstrates how electrical energy can be converted into light energy, the principle behind all-electric lighting.

11. Potato Clock

This experiment explores how chemical reactions in everyday items like potatoes can be used to generate electricity, powering a digital clock. It illustrates the concept of bio-energy and the potential of alternative energy sources.

Viewing the demonstration video is recommended to witness a potato transform into a power source for a digital clock, proving it’s not just for dinner but a battery too!

A potato clock works on the principle of converting chemical energy into electrical energy, using the potato as an electrolyte. The metals inserted into the potato (typically zinc and copper) act as electrodes. Chemical reactions between the potato juice and the metals create an electrical flow, turning the potato into a battery. This experiment provides a basic introduction to electrochemistry and how batteries work.

12. Water & Electricity

Difficulty Level: Middle

For a detailed demonstration of conducting the Water & Electricity experiment and understanding the principles of conductivity, viewing this video is highly recommended.

13. Create a Motor

Create a simple motor, demonstrating the interaction between electricity and magnetism to produce motion. It offers a hands-on approach to understanding how electrical energy can be converted into mechanical energy.

Cost: Middle ($5 to $10)

For a detailed guide on conducting the Creation of a Motor experiment and witnessing the fascinating process in action, watching this video is highly recommended.

14. Build a Power Pack

This experiment teaches the basics of electrical circuits, including the concepts of conductors, insulators, and switches. Participants learn how to assemble a simple circuit that can power a device, reinforcing the principles of how electricity flows through a circuit and the role of magnets in generating motion.

15. Making a Dimmer Switch

This experiment explores the concept of controlling electrical flow using a dimmer switch, demonstrating how varying the electrical input can affect light intensity. It offers a practical understanding of basic electronics and circuit design.

This experiment involves understanding resistance and its effect on the flow of electricity. A dimmer switch works by varying the resistance in an electrical circuit, thereby controlling the intensity of the light bulb. Increasing the resistance reduces the flow of current, dimming the light, and vice versa. This principle demonstrates how electrical resistance can control the amount of energy that flows through a circuit, a fundamental concept in electronics.

16. Paper Circuits

To learn how to create your own Paper Circuits and see the fascinating combination of creativity and electronics in action, watching this demonstration video is highly recommended.

This experiment demystifies the workings of electrical circuits, emphasizing the importance of a complete path for electrical flow and introducing the concept of conductivity. Participants learn the basic principles of circuit design, including how to connect components like LEDs and batteries to create a functioning circuit. It offers a creative and hands-on approach to understanding electricity and electronics, fostering skills in problem-solving and design.

This experiment provides a foundational understanding of how circuits are built and operated, serving as a stepping stone to more advanced electronics projects.

17. Play-Dough Circuits

18. build an electromagnetic train.

For an insightful demonstration of how to construct a simple version of an Electromagnetic Train and grasp the science that propels it, watching this video is highly recommended.

19. Bottle Radio

The value of electricity science experiments for kids, questions for further exploration.


Experiment	Questions
1. Bending Water with Static Electricity
2. Make a Magic Wand
3. Bubble Balloons
4. Soda Can Electroscope
5. Separate Salt & Pepper
6. Butterfly Experiment
7. Homopolar Motor
8. Electric Cornstarch
9. Simple Lemon Battery
10. Index Card Flashlight Experiment
11. Potato Clock
12. Water & Electricity
13. Create a Motor
14. Build a Power Pack
15. Making a Dimmer Switch
16. Paper Circuits
17. Play Dough Circuits
18. Build an Electromagnetic Train
19. Bottle Radio

Useful Resources

Final thoughts, leave a comment cancel reply.

Electric Charge and Electric Field

Introduction to electric charge and electric field.

A child swoops down a plastic playground slide, his hair standing on end.

Figure 1. Static electricity from this plastic slide causes the child’s hair to stand on end. The sliding motion stripped electrons away from the child’s body, leaving an excess of positive charges, which repel each other along each strand of hair. (credit: Ken Bosma/Wikimedia Commons)

Benjamin Franklin is shown flying a kite and lightning is observed. A metal key is attached to the string.

Figure 2. When Benjamin Franklin demonstrated that lightning was related to static electricity, he made a connection that is now part of the evidence that all directly experienced forces except the gravitational force are manifestations of the electromagnetic force.

The image of American politician and scientist Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) flying a kite in a thunderstorm is familiar to every schoolchild. (See Figure 2.) In this experiment, Franklin demonstrated a connection between lightning and static electricity . Sparks were drawn from a key hung on a kite string during an electrical storm. These sparks were like those produced by static electricity, such as the spark that jumps from your finger to a metal doorknob after you walk across a wool carpet. What Franklin demonstrated in his dangerous experiment was a connection between phenomena on two different scales: one the grand power of an electrical storm, the other an effect of more human proportions. Connections like this one reveal the underlying unity of the laws of nature, an aspect we humans find particularly appealing.

College Physics. Authored by : OpenStax College. Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/031da8d3-b525-429c-80cf-6c8ed997733a/College_Physics . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Located at License

It’s a wonderful world — and universe — out there.

Come explore with us!

Science News Explores

Experiment: how well do different materials create static electricity.

Investigate by making your own electroscope and testing some

a pale girl with shoulder length hair is holding a pink balloon near her head. The hair closest to the balloon is floating towards the balloon.

When you rub a balloon against your hair, it’s liable to stick! That cling is known as static electricity. We investigate the phenomenon in closer detail in this experiment.

omar alrawi/Flickr/( CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 DEED )

Terms and Concepts

Static electricity
Electrical charge
Electroscope
Triboelectric series
How can static electricity be measured?
How do different materials react to static electricity?
Which materials are neutral and which ones are charged?
How does an electroscope work?

Materials and Equipment

Styrofoam™ or paper cup
Sharp pencil or skewer
Drinking straw
Aluminum pie pan
Optional: clay
Aluminum foil
Styrofoam plate, or the Styrofoam lid from a take-out food container
A desk or table that is not metal. For example, a wooden, plastic, or glass desk or table would work. This is because these materials do not conduct electricity as well as metal does.
Wooden ruler, metric (a plastic ruler is more likely to build up its own static electricity and affect your measurements, so a wooden ruler is recommended)
Plastic wrap
Plastic, such as a flat, plastic comb
Tissue paper
Lab notebook

Experimental Procedure

Make two holes near the bottom of a Styrofoam or paper cup on opposite sides. A good way to do this is by pushing a sharp pencil or skewer through the cup.
Push a straw through both of the holes in the cup so that your setup now looks like Figure 3.
Either securely tape the cup’s opening to the aluminum pan, as shown in Figure 4, or use clay to hold the cup to the pan. If you are using clay, stick four little balls of clay (each about 2 centimeters, or 0.8 inch, in diameter) to the rim of the cup, then turn the cup upside down and stick it to the bottom of the aluminum pie pan using the clay.
Carefully adjust the straw’s position so that one end of the straw is right above the edge of the pan, as shown in Figure 4.
Cut a piece of thread with a length that is about two or three times the distance between the straw and the pan’s edge. Tie a few knots in one end of the thread.
Cut a square of aluminum foil that is about 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) on each side. Use it to make a ball around the knots in the thread, as shown in Figure 5. The ball should be about the size of a marble or a little smaller. It should be just tight enough so it does not fall off the thread.
Tape the thread to the tip of the straw so that the ball of foil hangs straight down from the straw, just touching the edge of the pan, as shown in Figure 6. Adjust the straw’s position if needed. If the end of the thread without the ball is dangling down and touching the pan, cut the dangling part off so it does not touch the pan.
If the straw seems loose at all, tape the straw to the cup (or wedge in some clay) so the straw does not move around when you use the electroscope.

When you rub the balloon on the Styrofoam plate, the plate gets an electrical charge, which means there is a buildup of electrons (on either object, the balloon or the plate). Even though the plate is charged, the electrons stay where they are because Styrofoam does not conduct electricity.

The ball of aluminum is touching the edge of the aluminum foil pan.

What is happening? When an object, such as the Styrofoam plate, gets an electrical charge, it can be either positive or negative. (If an object has a lot of electrons, it can have a negative charge, but if it does not have many electrons, it can have a positive charge. Whether an object tends to gain or loses electrons depends on the type of material it is made out of.) When a charged object (like the charged plate) touches the aluminum pan, the charge (or electrons) easily moves through the metal pan. Since the aluminum ball is touching the pan, the ball gets the same charge as the pan. This means that both the ball and pan have the same charge (they are either both positively or negatively charged). Because objects that have the same charge are repelled by each other, the ball is pushed away from the pan.


Styrofoam plate	Styrofoam	1
		2
		3
Wool hat	Wool	1
		2
		3
Tissue paper	Tissue	1
		2
		3
Piece of cotton fabric	Cotton	1

Use a wooden ruler to measure the distance between the foil ball and the pan. The more charge there is, the more distance there will be. Be careful not to touch the ball or the edge of the plate with the ruler (or your body) when you measure this distance. In your lab notebook, make a data table like Table 1, and record your results in it. (This will be Trial 1 using Styrofoam.) In your data table, only list the objects you actually test.
Now touch the ball with your finger. What happens? Record any observations in the data table in your lab notebook.
Discharge your electroscope by touching the pan with your finger.
Rub the object you want to test about 20 times with the balloon.
Once you have charged the object, quickly lift up the electroscope (holding it by its Styrofoam or paper cup) and place the object on top of the Styrofoam plate so that the object is laying flat on the plate. Make sure the object is not touching the table. Then place the electroscope on top of the object, as shown in Figure 8. (Note: Putting the object on top of the Styrofoam plate will help prevent the electric charge from leaving the object before it can go into the electroscope.)
Use the wooden ruler to measure the distance between the foil ball and the pan, making sure not to touch the pan or ball with your ruler (or your body). Record your results in your data table. Then touch the ball with your finger and record your observations.
Repeat steps 6.i. to 6.iv. two more times for the same object so that you have done three trials using the same material.
Repeat steps 6.i. to 6.v. for each object you want to test. Be sure to do two more trials using the Styrofoam plate (as you did in steps 2 to 5) so that you have done three trials with it. When you are done, you should have done a total of three trials with each object/material.
For example, if when testing the Styrofoam plate you measured the distance to be about 0.5 centimeter (cm) in trial 1, 0.75 cm in trial 2, and 0.5 cm in trial 3, the average distance would be about 0.6 cm (since 0.5 cm + 0.75 cm + 0.5 cm equals 1.75 cm, and when divided by three this equals about 0.6 cm).
On the x-axis (the horizontal axis) put the material that was tested, and on the y-axis (the vertical axis) put the average distance between the ball and the pan. Make a bar for each material you tested.
You can make a graph by hand or by using a computer program such as Create a Graph .
Which materials were the most electrically charged (had the largest distance between the ball and plate) and which were the least charged?
Arrange the materials from most charged to least charged. This is a triboelectric series and can be written as an ordered list or chart. How do common objects rank in the series? You can do some additional research on triboelectric series and see how your results compare to other established series. What are some similarities, and what are some differences?
Some objects become negatively charged and other objects become positively charged with static electricity. Does this kind of electroscope detect both types? How can you tell the difference between the two? Try to discover a way to sort the charged items into positively and negatively charged items.
Static electricity is formed when many surface contacts are made between two objects. Conduct an experiment to test if the amount of static electricity formed is related to the amount of rubbing that two objects experience. See the related project, Rubbing Up Against Static Electricity .
Static electricity is not good when it gets in your clothes! How do dryer sheets work? Try an experiment rubbing an object with a dryer sheet (like Bounce) after rubbing against the balloon. What happens to the electroscope reading after rubbing a charged object against the dryer sheet? Can you detect a difference before and after contact with the dryer sheet? If so, you can compare the results from different products. How do they compare? Which brands are most effective?
For a more advanced experiment, try investigating static electricity in different conditions, temperatures and humidity .
In this science project you made a simple homemade electroscope, but there are other methods of making electroscopes. Do some research on how other electroscopes are made and try to test a different electroscope design, or come up with your own!

This activity is brought to you in partnership with Science Buddies . Find the original activity on the Science Buddies website.

Experiment: How to make the boldest, brightest tie-dye!

A bee flies toward a yellow buttercup flower.

Flowers may electrically detect bees buzzing nearby

a circular structure with a shiny gold metal supports and silvery white wires runing throughout - it almost looks like a chandelier. At the very bottom there is a dark rectangle that all the wires seem to connect to, the quantum-processing chip.

Here’s why scientists want a good quantum computer

a composite photo showing a guy shooting a basketball in an arc, the basketball is shown four times in consecutive positions, showing the shape of the arc

Aerodynamics involved in shooting hoops can make vehicles greener

a composite image showing a black metal rectangle glued to chicken, a tomato, and an onion

A bit of electricity can glue hard metals to soft materials

an illustration of the inside of a blood vessel, with blood cells floating through it

The movie Frozen inspired the icy, 3-D printing of blood vessels

a "voltaic stack" of pennies and nickels sits atop a piece of tin foil atop a sponge; one metal clip of a multimeter lead touches the top of the voltaic stack, while the other touches the tin foil

Experiment: Make your own cents-able battery

An image showing the different kinds of scans taken of a mummified cat from ancient Egypt. The image on the left is a photo of the cat, the scan in the middle was taken by x-ray and the scan on the left was taken with neutron imaging. There is an inset showing details of the cloth wrappings.

Let’s learn about particles that help us peer inside objects

Core Practical: Investigating Charging by Friction ( Edexcel IGCSE Physics )

Revision note.

Core Practical 3: Investigating Charging by Friction

Aim of the experiment.

The aim of this experiment is to investigate how insulating materials can be charged by friction
Independent variable = Rods of different material
Dependent variable = Charge on the rod
Time spent rubbing the rod
Using the same type of cloth
Using the same length of rod

Equipment List

Apparatus for investigating charging by friction

Take a polythene rod, hold it at its centre and rub both ends with a cloth
Suspend the rod, without touching the ends, from a stand using a cradle and nylon thread
Take a Perspex rod and rub it with another cloth
Without touching the ends of the Perspex rod bring each end of the Perspex rod up to, but without touching, each end of the polythene rod
Record any observations
Repeat for different materials

Analysis of Results

When two insulating materials are rubbed together, electrons will pass from one insulator onto the other insulator
This is because electrons move from the cloth to the rod
Electrons are negatively charged hence the polythene rod becomes negatively charged

Static Observations, downloadable IGCSE & GCSE Physics revision notes

Electrons are transferred to the polythene rod whilst they move from the acetate rod

If the material is repelled (rotates away) from the polythene rod then the materials have the same charge
If the material is attracted to (moves towards) the polythene rod then they have opposite charges

Evaluating the Experiment

This experiment can be carried out in several different ways
For example, the independent variable could stay the same (using rods of different material)
The dependent variable could change to be the number of paper circles picked up by each rod
More analysis can be carried out e.g. creating a graph or a chart
Better conclusions can be drawn e.g. the rod made of ___ picked up more circles of paper than the other rods, therefore it became the most charged

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Electric Charge

Electric charge is a fundamental concept within physics, serving as a cornerstone for comprehending the physical world. This article will delve into the intricate nature of the electric charge and its accompanying properties. We will unveil the essence of electric charge through meticulous examination, providing a comprehensive definition and exploring its different types and governing principles. Additionally, our article will encompass a comprehensive overview of the various methodologies employed in the charging process, including friction, conduction, and induction.

What is an Electric Charge?

In the CBSE curriculum, understanding the concept of electric charge and its various types is of utmost importance.

Electric Charge Definition

Electric charge can be defined as a fundamental property of subatomic particles that gives rise to the phenomenon of experiencing force in the presence of electric and magnetic fields. These fields exert influence on charged particles, resulting in observable effects.

Types of Electric Charge

Electric charge comes in two main types: positive and negative charges . Positive charges are associated with protons, which are subatomic particles residing in the nucleus of an atom. They are represented by the symbol “+”. On the other hand, negative charges are linked to electrons, which orbit the atomic nucleus and are denoted by the symbol “-“.

The distinction between positive and negative charges plays a vital role in comprehending the behaviour of electrically charged objects. Opposite charges, such as positive and negative, attract each other, while like charges, such as positive and positive or negative and negative, repel each other. This fundamental principle is the foundation for various concepts in electromagnetism and is pivotal in understanding the interaction of charged particles.

When an object carries a negative charge, it possesses an excess of electrons compared to protons. Conversely, a positive charge indicates an excess of protons relative to electrons.

It’s important to note that when an equal number of positive and negative charges are present, they cancel each other out, resulting in a neutral state for the object.

By grasping the definition of electric charge and recognizing the significance of positive and negative charges, one can understand the fundamental principles governing electricity and magnetism.

Note: In the context of electric charge, the terms “attraction” and “repulsion” are used to describe how charges interact with each other.

Is Electric Charge a Vector Quantity?

No, electric charge is not a vector quantity; it is a scalar quantity. While vectors have both magnitude and direction and obey vector addition laws like the triangle law and parallelogram law, electric charge does not exhibit these properties. When currents meet at a junction, the resulting current is determined by the algebraic sum of the individual currents rather than their vector sum. Thus, electric charge is considered a scalar quantity , despite having magnitude and direction.

Measuring Electric Charge

Coloumb is the unit of electric charge.

“One coulomb is the quantity of charge transferred in one second.”

Mathematically, the definition of a coloumb is represented as:

In the equation, Q is the electric charge, I is the electric current and t is the time.

Properties of Electric Charge

Electric charge possesses several important properties that help us understand its behaviour. Let’s explore these properties:

Additivity of Electric Charge

When charges combine, their magnitudes add up algebraically. For example, if we have a positive charge of +3 units and a negative charge of -2 units, the resulting charge would be +1 unit.

Conservation of Electric Charge:

In an isolated system, electric charge is conserved. This means that the total electric charge within the system remains constant over time. The algebraic sum of all the charges present in the system remains the same.

Quantization of Electric Charge

Electric charge comes in discrete, indivisible units called elementary charges. The smallest unit of electric charge is the charge carried by an electron, which is approximately -1.6 x 10 -19 coulombs. This quantization of charge implies that electric charge cannot be divided into smaller parts.

Understanding these properties helps us comprehend the behaviour of electric charges and their importance in various scientific phenomena.

Note: “Algebraic sum” refers to adding charges, considering their signs (+ or -).

To understand the properties of charge in detail, read the article below:

Coulomb’s Law

We know that like charges repel each other, while unlike charges attract. However, have you ever wondered about the strength of these forces acting between charges? Coulomb’s Law offers us a method to calculate this force precisely.

According to Coulomb’s Law, the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of their magnitudes and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them.

The Coulomb’s Law is given by the expression: $\begin{array}{l}F_e = \frac{kq_1q_2}{r^2}\end{array} $ where F e is the electric force, q 1 and q 2 are electric charges, k is the Coulomb’s constant 8.988×10 9 N⋅m 2 /C 2 and r is the distance of separation.

By applying Coulomb’s Law, we can quantitatively determine the strength of the electric force between charges and gain valuable insights into their interactions. This fundamental principle holds great significance in the field of electromagnetism and enables us to analyse various electrical phenomena.

Through the application of Coulomb’s Law, scientists and researchers have been able to uncover the intricate workings of electric forces and comprehend their profound impact on the world around us.

Methods of Charging

The process of supplying electric charge to an object or causing it to lose electric charge is referred to as charging. There are three distinct methods by which an initially uncharged object can acquire charge:

Charging by friction ( triboelectric charging)
Charging by conduction
Charging by induction

Charging by Friction

When two objects are rubbed against each other, a transfer of charge occurs. In this process, one of the objects loses electrons while the other gains electrons. The object losing electrons becomes positively charged, while the object gaining electrons becomes negatively charged. This phenomenon, where both objects become charged due to friction, is commonly known as electrification by friction.

Charging by Conduction

Charging by conduction involves bringing an uncharged object in close proximity to a charged object. If the charged object has an unequal number of protons and electrons, the uncharged object will discharge electrons to achieve stability. This transfer of charge through contact is known as charging by conduction.

Charging by Induction

Charging by induction refers to the process of charging an uncharged object by merely bringing it close to a charged object, without any direct physical contact. Through induction, the charged object induces a redistribution of charges in the uncharged object, resulting in the acquisition of charge.

By understanding these different methods of charging, we can explore the fascinating ways in which objects become charged through friction, contact, or proximity. The study of charging provides valuable insights into the behaviour and interaction of electric charges in various scenarios.

Charging By Conduction

Charging By Induction

Overview of Electric Charge

Definition
Symbol
Formula
SI Unit
Other Units

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What is electric charge, how are electric charges distributed within the atom, what are the positively charged subatomic particles called, when will an electric charge be negative, why is an electric charge a scalar quantity, what is the unit for measuring electric charge, define one coulomb., what are the types of electric charges, how is an uncharged object charged, what are the other units of electric charge, the following video serves as a helpful resource for reviewing the electricity chapter in class 10..

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electric charge

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University of Saskatchewan Pressbooks - Introduction to Electricity, Magnetism, and Circuits - Electric Charge
BCcampus Open Publishing - Static Electricity and Charge: Conservation of Charge
Lehman College - Electric Charge and Coulomb’s Law
Boston University - Electric charge and Coulomb's law
University of Central Florida - Pressbooks - Electric Charge
Academia - Electric charge & field
Physics LibreTexts - Electric Charge
electric charge - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)

electric charge , basic property of matter carried by some elementary particles that governs how the particles are affected by an electric or magnetic field . Electric charge, which can be positive or negative, occurs in discrete natural units and is neither created nor destroyed.

Electric charges are of two general types: positive and negative. Two objects that have an excess of one type of charge exert a force of repulsion on each other when relatively close together. Two objects that have excess opposite charges, one positively charged and the other negatively charged, attract each other when relatively near. ( See Coulomb force .)

Italian-born physicist Dr. Enrico Fermi draws a diagram at a blackboard with mathematical equations. circa 1950.

Many fundamental, or subatomic, particles of matter have the property of electric charge. For example, electrons have negative charge and protons have positive charge, but neutrons have zero charge. The negative charge of each electron is found by experiment to have the same magnitude, which is also equal to that of the positive charge of each proton . Charge thus exists in natural units equal to the charge of an electron or a proton, a fundamental physical constant . A direct and convincing measurement of an electron’s charge , as a natural unit of electric charge, was first made (1909) in the Millikan oil-drop experiment . Atoms of matter are electrically neutral because their nuclei contain the same number of protons as there are electrons surrounding the nuclei. Electric current and charged objects involve the separation of some of the negative charge of neutral atoms. Current in metal wires consists of a drift of electrons of which one or two from each atom are more loosely bound than the rest. Some of the atoms in the surface layer of a glass rod positively charged by rubbing it with a silk cloth have lost electrons, leaving a net positive charge because of the unneutralized protons of their nuclei. A negatively charged object has an excess of electrons on its surface.

Electric charge is conserved: in any isolated system, in any chemical or nuclear reaction , the net electric charge is constant. The algebraic sum of the fundamental charges remains the same. ( See charge conservation .)

The unit of electric charge in the metre–kilogram–second and SI systems is the coulomb and is defined as the amount of electric charge that flows through a cross section of a conductor in an electric circuit during each second when the current has a value of one ampere . One coulomb consists of 6.24 × 10 18 natural units of electric charge, such as individual electrons or protons. From the definition of the ampere, the electron itself has a negative charge of 1.602176634 × 10 −19 coulomb.

An electrochemical unit of charge, the faraday , is useful in describing electrolysis reactions, such as in metallic electroplating . One faraday equals 96485.332123 coulombs, the charge of a mole of electrons (that is, an Avogadro’s number , 6.02214076 × 10 23 , of electrons).

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1.2: Electric Charge

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Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the concept of electric charge
Explain qualitatively the force electric charge creates

You are certainly familiar with electronic devices that you activate with the click of a switch, from computers to cell phones to television. And you have certainly seen electricity in a flash of lightning during a heavy thunderstorm. But you have also most likely experienced electrical effects in other ways, maybe without realizing that an electric force was involved. Let’s take a look at some of these activities and see what we can learn from them about electric charges and forces.

Discoveries

You have probably experienced the phenomenon of static electricity : When you first take clothes out of a dryer, many (not all) of them tend to stick together; for some fabrics, they can be very difficult to separate. Another example occurs if you take a woolen sweater off quickly—you can feel (and hear) the static electricity pulling on your clothes, and perhaps even your hair. If you comb your hair on a dry day and then put the comb close to a thin stream of water coming out of a faucet, you will find that the water stream bends toward (is attracted to) the comb (Figure $\PageIndex{1}$).

A photograph of a stream of water bending sideways as it is attracted to a comb.

Suppose you bring the comb close to some small strips of paper; the strips of paper are attracted to the comb and even cling to it (Figure $\PageIndex{2}$). In the kitchen, quickly pull a length of plastic cling wrap off the roll; it will tend to cling to most any nonmetallic material (such as plastic, glass, or food). If you rub a balloon on a wall for a few seconds, it will stick to the wall. Probably the most annoying effect of static electricity is getting shocked by a doorknob (or a friend) after shuffling your feet on some types of carpeting.

A photograph of thin strips of paper stuck to a plastic comb.

Many of these phenomena have been known for centuries. The ancient Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus (624–546 BCE) recorded that when amber (a hard, translucent, fossilized resin from extinct trees) was vigorously rubbed with a piece of fur, a force was created that caused the fur and the amber to be attracted to each other (Figure $\PageIndex{3}$). Additionally, he found that the rubbed amber would not only attract the fur, and the fur attract the amber, but they both could affect other (nonmetallic) objects, even if not in contact with those objects (Figure $\PageIndex{4}$).

A photograph of a piece of gold-colored amber from Malaysia that has been rubbed and polished to a smooth, rounded shape.

The English physicist William Gilbert (1544–1603) also studied this attractive force, using various substances. He worked with amber, and, in addition, he experimented with rock crystal and various precious and semi-precious gemstones. He also experimented with several metals. He found that the metals never exhibited this force, whereas the minerals did. Moreover, although an electrified amber rod would attract a piece of fur, it would repel another electrified amber rod; similarly, two electrified pieces of fur would repel each other.

Figure a shows a piece of amber and a piece of cloth. The amber has two negative charges and two positive charges, while the cloth has three of each. In figure B, two arrows are shown going through the amber, and another two arrows coming out of the amber. In figure C, the amber now has two positive charges and four negative charges, while the cloth has three positive charges and only one remaining negative charge.

This suggested there were two types of an electric property; this property eventually came to be called electric charge . The difference between the two types of electric charge is in the directions of the electric forces that each type of charge causes: These forces are repulsive when the same type of charge exists on two interacting objects and attractive when the charges are of opposite types. The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C), after the French physicist Charles Augustine de Coulomb (1736–1806).

The most peculiar aspect of this new force is that it does not require physical contact between the two objects in order to cause an acceleration. This is an example of a so-called “long-range” force. (Or, as James Clerk Maxwell later phrased it, “action at a distance.”) With the exception of gravity, all other forces we have discussed so far act only when the two interacting objects actually touch.

The American physicist and statesman Benjamin Franklin found that he could concentrate charge in a “Leyden jar,” which was essentially a glass jar with two sheets of metal foil, one inside and one outside, with the glass between them (Figure $\PageIndex{4}$). This created a large electric force between the two foil sheets.

This figure is an illustration of a Leyden Jar. A layer of tin foil is wrapped around the outside and the inside surfaces of a glass jar. A wire is attached to the inner foil and connected to a metal rod that extends out through a stopper at the top of the jar. The inner foil is marked as having positive charge and the outer as having negative charge.

Franklin pointed out that the observed behavior could be explained by supposing that one of the two types of charge remained motionless, while the other type of charge flowed from one piece of foil to the other. He further suggested that an excess of what he called this “electrical fluid” be called “positive electricity” and the deficiency of it be called “negative electricity.” His suggestion, with some minor modifications, is the model we use today. (With the experiments that he was able to do, this was a pure guess; he had no way of actually determining the sign of the moving charge. Unfortunately, he guessed wrong; we now know that the charges that flow are the ones Franklin labeled negative, and the positive charges remain largely motionless. Fortunately, as we’ll see, it makes no practical or theoretical difference which choice we make, as long as we stay consistent with our choice.)

Let’s list the specific observations that we have of this electric force :

The force acts without physical contact between the two objects.
The force can be either attractive or repulsive: If two interacting objects carry the same sign of charge, the force is repulsive; if the charges are of opposite sign, the force is attractive. These interactions are referred to as electrostatic repulsion and electrostatic attraction , respectively.
Not all objects are affected by this force.
The magnitude of the force decreases (rapidly) with increasing separation distance between the objects.

To be more precise, we find experimentally that the magnitude of the force decreases as the square of the distance between the two interacting objects increases. Thus, for example, when the distance between two interacting objects is doubled, the force between them decreases to one fourth what it was in the original system. We can also observe that the surroundings of the charged objects affect the magnitude of the force. However, we will explore this issue in a later chapter.

Properties of Electric Charge

In addition to the existence of two types of charge, several other properties of charge have been discovered.

Charge is quantized. This means that electric charge comes in discrete amounts, and there is a smallest possible amount of charge that an object can have. In the SI system, this smallest amount is $e \equiv 1.602 \times 10^{-19} \, C$. No free particle can have less charge than this, and, therefore, the charge on any object—the charge on all objects—must be an integer multiple of this amount. All macroscopic, charged objects have charge because electrons have either been added or taken away from them, resulting in a net charge.
The magnitude of the charge is independent of the type. Phrased another way, the smallest possible positive charge (to four significant figures) is $+1.602 \times 10^{-19} \, C$, and the smallest possible negative charge is $-1.602 \times 10^{-19}$; these values are exactly equal. This is simply how the laws of physics in our universe turned out.
Charge is conserved. Charge can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transferred from place to place, from one object to another. Frequently, we speak of two charges “canceling”; this is verbal shorthand. It means that if two objects that have equal and opposite charges are physically close to each other, then the (oppositely directed) forces they apply on some other charged object cancel, for a net force of zero. It is important that you understand that the charges on the objects by no means disappear, however. The net charge of the universe is constant.
Charge is conserved in closed systems. In principle, if a negative charge disappeared from your lab bench and reappeared on the Moon, conservation of charge would still hold. However, this never happens. If the total charge you have in your local system on your lab bench is changing, there will be a measurable flow of charge into or out of the system. Again, charges can and do move around, and their effects can and do cancel, but the net charge in your local environment (if closed) is conserved. The last two items are both referred to as the law of conservation of charge .

The Source of Charges: The Structure of the Atom

Once it became clear that all matter was composed of particles that came to be called atoms, it also quickly became clear that the constituents of the atom included both positively charged particles and negatively charged particles. The next question was, what are the physical properties of those electrically charged particles?

The negatively charged particle was the first one to be discovered. In 1897, the English physicist J. J. Thomson was studying what was then known as cathode rays . Some years before, the English physicist William Crookes had shown that these “rays” were negatively charged, but his experiments were unable to tell any more than that. (The fact that they carried a negative electric charge was strong evidence that these were not rays at all, but particles.) Thomson prepared a pure beam of these particles and sent them through crossed electric and magnetic fields, and adjusted the various field strengths until the net deflection of the beam was zero. With this experiment, he was able to determine the charge-to-mass ratio of the particle. This ratio showed that the mass of the particle was much smaller than that of any other previously known particle—1837 times smaller, in fact. Eventually, this particle came to be called the electron .

Since the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, the next question was to determine how the positive and negative charges are distributed within the atom. Thomson himself imagined that his electrons were embedded within a sort of positively charged paste, smeared out throughout the volume of the atom. However, in 1908, the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford showed that the positive charges of the atom existed within a tiny core—called a nucleus —that took up only a very tiny fraction of the overall volume of the atom, but held over 99% of the mass (see Linear Momentum and Collisions .) In addition, he showed that the negatively charged electrons perpetually orbited about this nucleus, forming a sort of electrically charged cloud that surrounds the nucleus (Figure $\PageIndex{5}$). Rutherford concluded that the nucleus was constructed of small, massive particles that he named proton s .

An illustration of the simplified model of a hydrogen atom. The nucleus is shown as a small dark, solid sphere at he center of an electron cloud.

Since it was known that different atoms have different masses, and that ordinarily atoms are electrically neutral, it was natural to suppose that different atoms have different numbers of protons in their nucleus, with an equal number of negatively charged electrons orbiting about the positively charged nucleus, thus making the atoms overall electrically neutral. However, it was soon discovered that although the lightest atom, hydrogen, did indeed have a single proton as its nucleus, the next heaviest atom—helium—has twice the number of protons (two), but four times the mass of hydrogen.

This mystery was resolved in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick , with the discovery of the neutron . The neutron is, essentially, an electrically neutral twin of the proton, with no electric charge, but (nearly) identical mass to the proton. The helium nucleus therefore has two neutrons along with its two protons. (Later experiments were to show that although the neutron is electrically neutral overall, it does have an internal charge structure . Furthermore, although the masses of the neutron and the proton are nearly equal, they aren’t exactly equal: The neutron’s mass is very slightly larger than the mass of the proton. That slight mass excess turned out to be of great importance. That, however, is a story that will have to wait until our study of modern physics in Nuclear Physics .)

Thus, in 1932, the picture of the atom was of a small, massive nucleus constructed of a combination of protons and neutrons, surrounded by a collection of electrons whose combined motion formed a sort of negatively charged “cloud” around the nucleus (Figure $\PageIndex{6}$). In an electrically neutral atom, the total negative charge of the collection of electrons is equal to the total positive charge in the nucleus. The very low-mass electrons can be more or less easily removed or added to an atom, changing the net charge on the atom (though without changing its type). An atom that has had the charge altered in this way is called an ion . Positive ions have had electrons removed, whereas negative ions have had excess electrons added. We also use this term to describe molecules that are not electrically neutral.

An illustration of the simplified model of a carbon atom. The nucleus is shown as a cluster of small blue and red spheres. The blue spheres represent neutrons and the red ones represent protons. The nucleus is surrounded by an electron cloud, represented by a shaded blue region with six darker spots representing the six localized electrons.

The story of the atom does not stop there, however. In the latter part of the twentieth century, many more subatomic particles were discovered in the nucleus of the atom: pions, neutrinos, and quarks, among others. With the exception of the photon, none of these particles are directly relevant to the study of electromagnetism, so we defer further discussion of them until the chapter on particle physics .

A Note on Terminology

As noted previously, electric charge is a property that an object can have. This is similar to how an object can have a property that we call mass, a property that we call density, a property that we call temperature, and so on. Technically, we should always say something like, “Suppose we have a particle that carries a charge of $\mu C$.” However, it is very common to say instead, “Suppose we have a $\mu C$ charge.” Similarly, we often say something like, “Six charges are located at the vertices of a regular hexagon.” A charge is not a particle; rather, it is a property of a particle. Nevertheless, this terminology is extremely common (and is frequently used in this book, as it is everywhere else). So, keep in the back of your mind what we really mean when we refer to a “charge.”

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Study clarifies a key question in particle physics about muon's magnetic moment

by José Tadeu Arantes, FAPESP

Magnetic moment is an intrinsic property of a particle with spin, arising from interaction between the particle and a magnet or other object with a magnetic field. Like mass and electric charge, magnetic moment is one of the fundamental magnitudes of physics.

There is a difference between the theoretical value of the magnetic moment of a muon, a particle that belongs to the same class as the electron, and the values obtained in high-energy experiments conducted in particle accelerators . The difference only appears at the eighth decimal place, but scientists have been intrigued by it since it was discovered in 1948.

It is not a detail: it can indicate whether the muon interacts with dark matter particles or other Higgs bosons or even whether unknown forces are involved in the process.

The theoretical value of the muon's magnetic moment, represented by the letter g, is given by the Dirac equation—formulated by English physicist and 1933 Nobel Prize winner Paulo Dirac (1902-1984), one of the founders of quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics—as 2. However, experiments have shown that g is not exactly 2, and there is a great deal of interest in understanding "g-2", i.e., the difference between the experimental value and the value predicted by the Dirac equation.

The best experimental value currently available, obtained to an impressive degree of precision at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in the United States and announced in August 2023, is 2.00116592059, with an uncertainty range of plus or minus 0.00000000022. Information about the Muon G-2 Experiment conducted at Fermilab can be found at: muon-g-2.fnal.gov/ .

"Precise determination of the muon's magnetic moment has become a key issue in particle physics because investigation of this gap between the experimental data and the theoretical prediction can provide information that could lead to the discovery of some spectacular new effect," physicist Diogo Boito, a professor at the University of São Paulo's São Carlos Institute of Physics (IFSC-USP), told Agência FAPESP.

An article on the subject by Boito and collaborators is published in the journal Physical Review Letters .

"Our results were presented at two important international events. First by me during a workshop in Madrid, Spain, and later by my colleague Maarten Golterman of San Francisco State University at a meeting in Bern, Switzerland," Boito said.

These results quantify and point to the origin of a discrepancy between the two methods used to make current predictions of muon g-2.

"There are currently two methods for determining a fundamental component of g-2. The first is based on experimental data, and the second on computer simulations of quantum chromodynamics, or QCD, the theory that studies strong interactions between quarks. These two methods produce quite different results, which is a major problem. Until it's solved, we can't investigate the contributions of possible exotic particles such as new Higgs bosons or dark matter, for example, to g-2," he explained.

The study succeeded in explaining the discrepancy, but to understand it we need to take a few steps back and start again with a somewhat more detailed description of the muon.

The muon is a particle that belongs to the class of leptons, as does the electron, but has a much larger mass. For this reason, it is unstable and survives only for a very short time in a high-energy context. When muons interact with each other in the presence of a magnetic field , they decay and regroup as a cloud of other particles, such as electrons, positrons, W and Z bosons, Higgs bosons, and photons.

In experiments, muons are, therefore, always accompanied by many other virtual particles. Their contributions make the actual magnetic moment measured in experiments greater than the theoretical magnetic moment calculated by the Dirac equation, which is equal to 2.

"To obtain the difference [g-2], it's necessary to consider all these contributions—both those predicted by QCD [in the Standard Model of particle physics] and others that are smaller but appear in high-precision experimental measurements. We know several of these contributions very well—but not all of them," Boito said.

The effects of QCD strong interaction cannot be calculated theoretically alone, as in some energy regimes, they are impracticable, so there are two possibilities. One has been used for some time and entails resorting to the experimental data obtained from electron-positron collisions, which create other particles made up of quarks. The other is lattice QCD, which became competitive only in the current decade and entails simulating the theoretical process in a supercomputer.

"The main problem with predicting muon g-2 right now is that the result obtained using data from electron-positron collisions doesn't agree with the total experimental result, while the results based on lattice QCD do. No one was sure why, and our study clarifies part of this puzzle," Boito said.

He and his colleagues conducted their research exactly to solve this problem. "The article reports the findings of a number of studies in which we developed a novel method to compare the results of lattice QCD simulations with the results based on experimental data. We show that it's possible to extract from the data contributions that are calculated in the lattice with great precision—the contributions of so-called connected Feynman diagrams," he said.

American theoretical physicist Richard Feynman (1918-1988) won the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics (with Julian Schwinger and Shin'ichiro Tomonaga) for fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics and the physics of elementary particles. Feynman diagrams, created in 1948, are graphical representations of the mathematical expressions that describe the interaction of such particles and are used to simplify the respective calculations.

"In the study, we obtained the contributions of connected Feynman diagrams in the so-called 'intermediate energy window' with great precision for the first time. Today, we have eight results for these contributions, obtained by means of lattice QCD simulations, and all of them agree to a significant extent. Moreover, we show that the results based on electron-positron interaction data don't agree with these eight results from simulations," Boito said.

This enabled the researchers to locate the source of the problem and think about possible solutions. "It became clear that if the experimental data for the two-pion channel are underestimated for some reason, this could be the cause of the discrepancy," he said. Pions are mesons—particles made up of a quark and an antiquark produced in high-energy collisions.

In fact, new data (still being peer-reviewed) from the CMD-3 Experiment conducted at Novosibirsk State University in Russia appears to show that the oldest two-pion channel data may have been underestimated for some reason.

Journal information: Physical Review Letters

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