research paper about body

How to Write a Body of a Research Paper

The main part of your research paper is called “the body.” To write this important part of your paper, include only relevant information, or information that gets to the point. Organize your ideas in a logical order—one that makes sense—and provide enough details—facts and examples—to support the points you want to make.

Logical Order

Transition words and phrases, adding evidence, phrases for supporting topic sentences.

• Transition Phrases for Comparisons
• Transition Phrases for Contrast
• Transition Phrases to Show a Process
• Phrases to Introduce Examples
• Transition Phrases for Presenting Evidence

How to Make Effective Transitions

Examples of effective transitions, drafting your conclusion, writing the body paragraphs.

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• The third and fourth paragraphs follow the same format as the second:
• Transition or topic sentence.
• Topic sentence (if not included in the first sentence).
• Supporting sentences including a discussion, quotations, or examples that support the topic sentence.
• Concluding sentence that transitions to the next paragraph.

The topic of each paragraph will be supported by the evidence you itemized in your outline. However, just as smooth transitions are required to connect your paragraphs, the sentences you write to present your evidence should possess transition words that connect ideas, focus attention on relevant information, and continue your discussion in a smooth and fluid manner.

You presented the main idea of your paper in the thesis statement. In the body, every single paragraph must support that main idea. If any paragraph in your paper does not, in some way, back up the main idea expressed in your thesis statement, it is not relevant, which means it doesn’t have a purpose and shouldn’t be there.

Each paragraph also has a main idea of its own. That main idea is stated in a topic sentence, either at the beginning or somewhere else in the paragraph. Just as every paragraph in your paper supports your thesis statement, every sentence in each paragraph supports the main idea of that paragraph by providing facts or examples that back up that main idea. If a sentence does not support the main idea of the paragraph, it is not relevant and should be left out.

A paper that makes claims or states ideas without backing them up with facts or clarifying them with examples won’t mean much to readers. Make sure you provide enough supporting details for all your ideas. And remember that a paragraph can’t contain just one sentence. A paragraph needs at least two or more sentences to be complete. If a paragraph has only one or two sentences, you probably haven’t provided enough support for your main idea. Or, if you have trouble finding the main idea, maybe you don’t have one. In that case, you can make the sentences part of another paragraph or leave them out.

Arrange the paragraphs in the body of your paper in an order that makes sense, so that each main idea follows logically from the previous one. Likewise, arrange the sentences in each paragraph in a logical order.

If you carefully organized your notes and made your outline, your ideas will fall into place naturally as you write your draft. The main ideas, which are building blocks of each section or each paragraph in your paper, come from the Roman-numeral headings in your outline. The supporting details under each of those main ideas come from the capital-letter headings. In a shorter paper, the capital-letter headings may become sentences that include supporting details, which come from the Arabic numerals in your outline. In a longer paper, the capital letter headings may become paragraphs of their own, which contain sentences with the supporting details, which come from the Arabic numerals in your outline.

In addition to keeping your ideas in logical order, transitions are another way to guide readers from one idea to another. Transition words and phrases are important when you are suggesting or pointing out similarities between ideas, themes, opinions, or a set of facts. As with any perfect phrase, transition words within paragraphs should not be used gratuitously. Their meaning must conform to what you are trying to point out, as shown in the examples below:

• “Accordingly” or “in accordance with” indicates agreement. For example :Thomas Edison’s experiments with electricity accordingly followed the theories of Benjamin Franklin, J. B. Priestly, and other pioneers of the previous century.
• “Analogous” or “analogously” contrasts different things or ideas that perform similar functions or make similar expressions. For example: A computer hard drive is analogous to a filing cabinet. Each stores important documents and data.
• “By comparison” or “comparatively”points out differences between things that otherwise are similar. For example: Roses require an alkaline soil. Azaleas, by comparison, prefer an acidic soil.
• “Corresponds to” or “correspondingly” indicates agreement or conformity. For example: The U.S. Constitution corresponds to England’s Magna Carta in so far as both established a framework for a parliamentary system.
• “Equals,”“equal to,” or “equally” indicates the same degree or quality. For example:Vitamin C is equally as important as minerals in a well-balanced diet.
• “Equivalent” or “equivalently” indicates two ideas or things of approximately the same importance, size, or volume. For example:The notions of individual liberty and the right to a fair and speedy trial hold equivalent importance in the American legal system.
• “Common” or “in common with” indicates similar traits or qualities. For example: Darwin did not argue that humans were descended from the apes. Instead, he maintained that they shared a common ancestor.
• “In the same way,”“in the same manner,”“in the same vein,” or “likewise,” connects comparable traits, ideas, patterns, or activities. For example: John Roebling’s suspension bridges in Brooklyn and Cincinnati were built in the same manner, with strong cables to support a metallic roadway. Example 2: Despite its delicate appearance, John Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge was built as a suspension bridge supported by strong cables. Example 3: Cincinnati’s Suspension Bridge, which Roebling also designed, was likewise supported by cables.
• “Kindred” indicates that two ideas or things are related by quality or character. For example: Artists Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin are considered kindred spirits in the Impressionist Movement. “Like” or “as” are used to create a simile that builds reader understanding by comparing two dissimilar things. (Never use “like” as slang, as in: John Roebling was like a bridge designer.) For examples: Her eyes shone like the sun. Her eyes were as bright as the sun.
• “Parallel” describes events, things, or ideas that occurred at the same time or that follow similar logic or patterns of behavior. For example:The original Ocktoberfests were held to occur in parallel with the autumn harvest.
• “Obviously” emphasizes a point that should be clear from the discussion. For example: Obviously, raccoons and other wildlife will attempt to find food and shelter in suburban areas as their woodland habitats disappear.
• “Similar” and “similarly” are used to make like comparisons. For example: Horses and ponies have similar physical characteristics although, as working farm animals, each was bred to perform different functions.
• “There is little debate” or “there is consensus” can be used to point out agreement. For example:There is little debate that the polar ice caps are melting.The question is whether global warming results from natural or human-made causes.

Other phrases that can be used to make transitions or connect ideas within paragraphs include:

• Use “alternately” or “alternatively” to suggest a different option.
• Use “antithesis” to indicate a direct opposite.
• Use “contradict” to indicate disagreement.
• Use “on the contrary” or “conversely” to indicate that something is different from what it seems.
• Use “dissimilar” to point out differences between two things.
• Use “diverse” to discuss differences among many things or people.
• Use “distinct” or “distinctly” to point out unique qualities.
• Use “inversely” to indicate an opposite idea.
• Use “it is debatable,” “there is debate,” or “there is disagreement” to suggest that there is more than one opinion about a subject.
• Use “rather” or “rather than” to point out an exception.
• Use “unique” or “uniquely” to indicate qualities that can be found nowhere else.
• Use “unlike” to indicate dissimilarities.
• Use “various” to indicate more than one kind.

Writing Topic Sentences

Remember, a sentence should express a complete thought, one thought per sentence—no more, no less. The longer and more convoluted your sentences become, the more likely you are to muddle the meaning, become repetitive, and bog yourself down in issues of grammar and construction. In your first draft, it is generally a good idea to keep those sentences relatively short and to the point. That way your ideas will be clearly stated.You will be able to clearly see the content that you have put down—what is there and what is missing—and add or subtract material as it is needed. The sentences will probably seem choppy and even simplistic.The purpose of a first draft is to ensure that you have recorded all the content you will need to make a convincing argument. You will work on smoothing and perfecting the language in subsequent drafts.

Transitioning from your topic sentence to the evidence that supports it can be problematic. It requires a transition, much like the transitions needed to move from one paragraph to the next. Choose phrases that connect the evidence directly to your topic sentence.

• Consider this: (give an example or state evidence).
• If (identify one condition or event) then (identify the condition or event that will follow).
• It should go without saying that (point out an obvious condition).
• Note that (provide an example or observation).
• Take a look at (identify a condition; follow with an explanation of why you think it is important to the discussion).
• The authors had (identify their idea) in mind when they wrote “(use a quotation from their text that illustrates the idea).”
• The point is that (summarize the conclusion your reader should draw from your research).
• This becomes evident when (name the author) says that (paraphrase a quote from the author’s writing).
• We see this in the following example: (provide an example of your own).
• (The author’s name) offers the example of (summarize an example given by the author).

If an idea is controversial, you may need to add extra evidence to your paragraphs to persuade your reader. You may also find that a logical argument, one based solely on your evidence, is not persuasive enough and that you need to appeal to the reader’s emotions. Look for ways to incorporate your research without detracting from your argument.

Writing Transition Sentences

It is often difficult to write transitions that carry a reader clearly and logically on to the next paragraph (and the next topic) in an essay. Because you are moving from one topic to another, it is easy to simply stop one and start another. Great research papers, however, include good transitions that link the ideas in an interesting discussion so that readers can move smoothly and easily through your presentation. Close each of your paragraphs with an interesting transition sentence that introduces the topic coming up in the next paragraph.

Transition sentences should show a relationship between the two topics.Your transition will perform one of the following functions to introduce the new idea:

• Indicate that you will be expanding on information in a different way in the upcoming paragraph.
• Indicate that a comparison, contrast, or a cause-and-effect relationship between the topics will be discussed.
• Indicate that an example will be presented in the next paragraph.
• Indicate that a conclusion is coming up.

Transitions make a paper flow smoothly by showing readers how ideas and facts follow one another to point logically to a conclusion. They show relationships among the ideas, help the reader to understand, and, in a persuasive paper, lead the reader to the writer’s conclusion.

Each paragraph should end with a transition sentence to conclude the discussion of the topic in the paragraph and gently introduce the reader to the topic that will be raised in the next paragraph. However, transitions also occur within paragraphs—from sentence to sentence—to add evidence, provide examples, or introduce a quotation.

The type of paper you are writing and the kinds of topics you are introducing will determine what type of transitional phrase you should use. Some useful phrases for transitions appear below. They are grouped according to the function they normally play in a paper. Transitions, however, are not simply phrases that are dropped into sentences. They are constructed to highlight meaning. Choose transitions that are appropriate to your topic and what you want the reader to do. Edit them to be sure they fit properly within the sentence to enhance the reader’s understanding.

Transition Phrases for Comparisons:

• We also see
• In addition to
• Notice that
• Beside that,
• In comparison,
• Once again,
• Identically,
• For example,
• Comparatively, it can be seen that
• We see this when
• This corresponds to
• In other words,
• At the same time,
• By the same token,

Transition Phrases for Contrast:

• By contrast,
• On the contrary,
• Nevertheless,
• An exception to this would be …
• Alongside that,we find …
• On one hand … on the other hand …
• [New information] presents an opposite view …
• Conversely, it could be argued …
• Other than that,we find that …
• We get an entirely different impression from …
• One point of differentiation is …
• Further investigation shows …
• An exception can be found in the fact that …

Transition Phrases to Show a Process:

• At the top we have … Near the bottom we have …
• Here we have … There we have …
• Continuing on,
• We progress to …
• Close up … In the distance …
• With this in mind,
• Moving in sequence,
• Proceeding sequentially,
• Moving to the next step,
• First, Second,Third,…
• Examining the activities in sequence,
• Sequentially,
• As a result,
• The end result is …
• To illustrate …
• Subsequently,
• One consequence of …
• If … then …
• It follows that …
• This is chiefly due to …
• The next step …
• Later we find …

Phrases to Introduce Examples:

• For instance,
• Particularly,
• In particular,
• This includes,
• Specifically,
• To illustrate,
• One illustration is
• One example is
• This is illustrated by
• This can be seen when
• This is especially seen in
• This is chiefly seen when

Transition Phrases for Presenting Evidence:

• Another point worthy of consideration is
• At the center of the issue is the notion that
• Before moving on, it should be pointed out that
• Another important point is
• Another idea worth considering is
• Consequently,
• Especially,
• Even more important,
• Getting beyond the obvious,
• In spite of all this,
• It follows that
• It is clear that
• More importantly,
• Most importantly,

How to make effective transitions between sections of a research paper? There are two distinct issues in making strong transitions:

• Does the upcoming section actually belong where you have placed it?
• Have you adequately signaled the reader why you are taking this next step?

The first is the most important: Does the upcoming section actually belong in the next spot? The sections in your research paper need to add up to your big point (or thesis statement) in a sensible progression. One way of putting that is, “Does the architecture of your paper correspond to the argument you are making?” Getting this architecture right is the goal of “large-scale editing,” which focuses on the order of the sections, their relationship to each other, and ultimately their correspondence to your thesis argument.

It’s easy to craft graceful transitions when the sections are laid out in the right order. When they’re not, the transitions are bound to be rough. This difficulty, if you encounter it, is actually a valuable warning. It tells you that something is wrong and you need to change it. If the transitions are awkward and difficult to write, warning bells should ring. Something is wrong with the research paper’s overall structure.

After you’ve placed the sections in the right order, you still need to tell the reader when he is changing sections and briefly explain why. That’s an important part of line-by-line editing, which focuses on writing effective sentences and paragraphs.

Effective transition sentences and paragraphs often glance forward or backward, signaling that you are switching sections. Take this example from J. M. Roberts’s History of Europe . He is finishing a discussion of the Punic Wars between Rome and its great rival, Carthage. The last of these wars, he says, broke out in 149 B.C. and “ended with so complete a defeat for the Carthaginians that their city was destroyed . . . .” Now he turns to a new section on “Empire.” Here is the first sentence: “By then a Roman empire was in being in fact if not in name.”(J. M. Roberts, A History of Europe . London: Allen Lane, 1997, p. 48) Roberts signals the transition with just two words: “By then.” He is referring to the date (149 B.C.) given near the end of the previous section. Simple and smooth.

Michael Mandelbaum also accomplishes this transition between sections effortlessly, without bringing his narrative to a halt. In The Ideas That Conquered the World: Peace, Democracy, and Free Markets , one chapter shows how countries of the North Atlantic region invented the idea of peace and made it a reality among themselves. Here is his transition from one section of that chapter discussing “the idea of warlessness” to another section dealing with the history of that idea in Europe.

The widespread aversion to war within the countries of the Western core formed the foundation for common security, which in turn expressed the spirit of warlessness. To be sure, the rise of common security in Europe did not abolish war in other parts of the world and could not guarantee its permanent abolition even on the European continent. Neither, however, was it a flukish, transient product . . . . The European common security order did have historical precedents, and its principal features began to appear in other parts of the world. Precedents for Common Security The security arrangements in Europe at the dawn of the twenty-first century incorporated features of three different periods of the modern age: the nineteenth century, the interwar period, and the ColdWar. (Michael Mandelbaum, The Ideas That Conquered the World: Peace, Democracy, and Free Markets . New York: Public Affairs, 2002, p. 128)

It’s easier to make smooth transitions when neighboring sections deal with closely related subjects, as Mandelbaum’s do. Sometimes, however, you need to end one section with greater finality so you can switch to a different topic. The best way to do that is with a few summary comments at the end of the section. Your readers will understand you are drawing this topic to a close, and they won’t be blindsided by your shift to a new topic in the next section.

Here’s an example from economic historian Joel Mokyr’s book The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress . Mokyr is completing a section on social values in early industrial societies. The next section deals with a quite different aspect of technological progress: the role of property rights and institutions. So Mokyr needs to take the reader across a more abrupt change than Mandelbaum did. Mokyr does that in two ways. First, he summarizes his findings on social values, letting the reader know the section is ending. Then he says the impact of values is complicated, a point he illustrates in the final sentences, while the impact of property rights and institutions seems to be more straightforward. So he begins the new section with a nod to the old one, noting the contrast.

In commerce, war and politics, what was functional was often preferred [within Europe] to what was aesthetic or moral, and when it was not, natural selection saw to it that such pragmatism was never entirely absent in any society. . . . The contempt in which physical labor, commerce, and other economic activity were held did not disappear rapidly; much of European social history can be interpreted as a struggle between wealth and other values for a higher step in the hierarchy. The French concepts of bourgeois gentilhomme and nouveau riche still convey some contempt for people who joined the upper classes through economic success. Even in the nineteenth century, the accumulation of wealth was viewed as an admission ticket to social respectability to be abandoned as soon as a secure membership in the upper classes had been achieved. Institutions and Property Rights The institutional background of technological progress seems, on the surface, more straightforward. (Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress . New York: Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 176)

Note the phrase, “on the surface.” Mokyr is hinting at his next point, that surface appearances are deceiving in this case. Good transitions between sections of your research paper depend on:

• Getting the sections in the right order
• Moving smoothly from one section to the next
• Signaling readers that they are taking the next step in your argument
• Explaining why this next step comes where it does

Every good paper ends with a strong concluding paragraph. To write a good conclusion, sum up the main points in your paper. To write an even better conclusion, include a sentence or two that helps the reader answer the question, “So what?” or “Why does all this matter?” If you choose to include one or more “So What?” sentences, remember that you still need to support any point you make with facts or examples. Remember, too, that this is not the place to introduce new ideas from “out of the blue.” Make sure that everything you write in your conclusion refers to what you’ve already written in the body of your paper.

Back to How To Write A Research Paper .

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Social Media Use and Body Image Disorders: Association between Frequency of Comparing One’s Own Physical Appearance to That of People Being Followed on Social Media and Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness

Barbara jiotsa.

1 Addictology and Liaison Psychiatry Department, Nantes University Hospital, 44000 Nantes, France; [email protected] (B.J.); [email protected] (B.N.); [email protected] (B.R.)

Benjamin Naccache

Mélanie duval.

2 Public Health Department, Nantes University Hospital, 44000 Nantes, France; [email protected]

Bruno Rocher

Marie grall-bronnec.

3 Inserm UMR 1246, Nantes and Tours Universities, 44200 Nantes, France

Associated Data

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

(1) Summary: Many studies have evaluated the association between traditional media exposure and the presence of body dissatisfaction and body image disorders. The last decade has borne witness to the rise of social media, predominantly used by teenagers and young adults. This study’s main objective was to investigate the association between how often one compares their physical appearance to that of the people they follow on social media, and one’s body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. (2) Method: A sample composed of 1331 subjects aged 15 to 35 (mean age = 24.2), including 1138 subjects recruited from the general population and 193 patients suffering from eating disorders, completed an online questionnaire assessing social media use (followed accounts, selfies posted, image comparison frequency). This questionnaire incorporated two items originating from the Eating Disorder Inventory Scale (Body Dissatisfaction: EDI-BD and Drive for Thinness: EDI-DT). (3) Results: We found an association between the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. Interestingly, the level of education was a confounding factor in this relationship, while BMI was not. (4) Discussion: The widespread use of social media in teenagers and young adults could increase body dissatisfaction as well as their drive for thinness, therefore rendering them more vulnerable to eating disorders. We should consequently take this social evolution into account, including it in general population prevention programs and in patients’ specific treatment plans.

1. Introduction

Body image is defined as one’s perception, thoughts, and emotions revolving around one’s own body. It is the depiction of one’s body representation, including their mirror reflection, and it reflects social constructs, which depend on a society’s culture and norms. This conception is created using body ideals, substantially communicated via media, family, and peers.

For the last 30 years, media have been over-exposing people to thinness ideals, starting from a young age [ 1 ], turning this ideal into a new reference standard [ 2 ]. Young women, who are most sensitive to thinness ideals, tend to liken them to beauty and success [ 3 ]. Thus, etiologic models incorporating environmental factors consider social pressure about physical appearance to be a determining factor in developing eating disorders (EDs) [ 4 , 5 ].

However, even though this social pressure is indisputable, not all people are vulnerable to it. It is the degree with which they will relate to these thinness standards, namely how they internalize this ideal, that will help to predict the risk of developing an ED [ 6 ]. Indeed, internalizing thinness standards can lead to an alteration in body image, resulting in body dissatisfaction and exaggerated concerns about body and weight [ 4 ]. Body dissatisfaction is characterized by an inconsistency between one’s real body and the idealized body. It is one of the most studied psychological constructs in body image disorders literature [ 4 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. According to the literature, it is often linked to psychological distress [ 10 , 11 ] and is a proven risk factor for developing an ED [ 12 , 13 ], through, in particular, the implementation of food restriction that can lead to anorexia nervosa (AN) [ 14 , 15 ] or to the onset of binge eating episodes (with or without compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain). According to several authors, body dissatisfaction found in AN patients differs from that of control subjects by a greater feeling of inconsistency between their actual body and the desired body [ 16 ]. Indeed, in addition to overestimating the size of their actual shape, AN patients seek to resemble an ideal significantly thinner than subjects without EDs do. People with AN and bulimia nervosa share the same body image obsession, with the pervasive fear of gaining weight [ 4 ]. Finally, subjects with binge eating disorders tend to be overweight, or even obese, which can reinforce body dissatisfaction [ 17 ].

Social comparison, combined with the internalization of ideals, is one of the main mechanisms participating in one’s body image perception. These two mechanisms are instrumental in developing body dissatisfaction [ 1 , 18 , 19 ]. Several studies have shown that individuals who compare their physical appearance to that of others they considered to be more attractive than them, such as models or celebrities, had a higher chance of being dissatisfied with their body image and developing an ED [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ].

Although historically speaking, body norms have been mainly conveyed through traditional media (TV, radio, newspaper, magazines), the last few years have borne witness to the rise and expansion of social media use. The term “social media” refers to every website and online mobile app with user-generated content. They enable their users to participate in online exchanges, broadcast self-made content, and join virtual communities. They are mostly used by teenagers and young adults, and the most common ones are Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and Twitter. Several studies have suggested that social media exposure could foster body dissatisfaction and result in risky eating behaviors by broadcasting thinness ideals individuals thus long for [ 18 , 24 , 25 ]. Among the identified mechanisms that explain this outcome, the most common ones are social comparison based on physical appearance and thinness ideals’ internalization through daily exposure to idealized bodies. Indeed, physical appearance holds a central place in social media today [ 26 ].

There is, to this day, a lack of scientific data, and in particular French data, about the association between the use of social media and risky eating behaviors [ 27 ]. In this context, this study’s main objective was to study the association between, on one hand, daily exposure to idealized bodies through social media and, on the other hand, the presence of two dimensions fostering body image disorders: body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. A secondary objective was to compare two populations, one with a risk of suffering from ED, and the other one free of that risk, using different variables. The hypothesis was that at-risk participants were more dissatisfied with their physical appearance, had a higher drive for thinness, and compared themselves more often to social-media-conveyed images.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. study design and ethics statements.

This is a transversal observational study. Participants had to answer a questionnaire available online. Since it was an investigation involving the health field, but with an objective that did not involve the developing of biological or medical knowledge, it not fit in the French Jardé legal framework (and thus, approval from an ethics committee was not required). Data collection was made anonymously, was digitalized, and was realized outside of a care setting. Answering the questionnaire was interpreted as consent for data use, as it displayed that the results would be used in a survey, but that the participation would be anonymous, and that there were no data that would lead them to be recognized should they decide to participate.

2.2. Participants Recruitment

The study’s general population participants were enlisted via a social media publication (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter) and via posters in gyms. These posters were also sent to health workers with a practice in Nantes and in different French cities (psychiatrists, GPs, psychologists, etc.), who were tasked with informing their ED patients about this study. The Fédération Française Anorexie Boulimie (FFAB, French Federation for Anorexia and Bulimia), which is an association regrouping professionals working in the ED field, helped to broadcast the questionnaire using mailing lists, social media, and websites. Recruitment occurred between September 2019 and December 2019.

The inclusion criteria were as follows: using their Facebook and/or Instagram account daily and being 15 to 35 years old. This age range was chosen in light of the current literature, which shows that use of social media and body image concerns involved mainly teenagers and young people [ 28 , 29 ]. Moreover, participants recruited via a health professional had to register their ED diagnosis for which they were treated.

2.3. Evaluation

2.3.1. general data.

The questionnaire’s first part was designed to register sex, age, degrees, and current height and weight to measure body mass index (BMI).

2.3.2. Social Media Use

The questionnaire’s second part interrogated the participants about their use of social media: platform, frequency (number of uses per day), time spent (hours per day), frequency of comparing one’s physical appearance to that of people followed on social media, and the frequency of posting “selfies” (a photograph that you take of yourself).

2.3.3. Body Image

The questionnaire’s third part evaluated body image perception, using the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2) scale, translated and adapted in French [ 30 , 31 ]. It is a self-rated questionnaire evaluating psychological characteristics and symptoms associated with ED, using 11 subscales. We used the “Drive for Thinness” subscale (EDI-DT), composed of 7 questions (score of 0 to 21), and “Body Dissatisfaction” subscale (EDI-BD), composed of 9 questions (score of 0 to 27). The subscales are presented in Table 1 .

Drive for Thinness and Body Dissatisfaction subscales of Eating Disorder Inventory-2.

Drive for Thinness	Always (=3)	Usually (=2)	Often (=1)	Sometimes (=0)	Seldom (=0)	Never (=0)
1—I eat sweets and carbohydrates without feeling nervous
2—I think about dieting
3—I feel extremely guilty after overeating
4—I am terrified of gaining weight
5—I exaggerate or magnify the importance of weight
6—I am preoccupied with the desire to be thinner
7—If I gain a pound, I worry that I will keep gaining
1—I think that my stomach is too big (+)
2—I think that my thighs are too large (+)
3—I think that my stomach is just the right size (−)
4—I feel satisfied with the shape of my body (−)
5—I like the shape of my buttocks (−)
6—I think my hips are too big (+)
7—I think that my thighs are just the right size (−)
8—I think my buttocks are too large (+)
9—I think that my hips are just the right size (−)

2.3.4. ED Screening

The questionnaire’s last part aimed at screening ED, using the Sick-Control-One Stone-Fat-Food (SCOFF) self-questionnaire. It is a simple survey of 5 questions used to screen eating disorders in general population [ 32 ]. The French validation depicted this questionnaire to be as efficient and relatable as the original, with a great sensitivity and specificity in diagnosing ED when a patient has a score of 2 or over [ 33 ]. It enabled us to sort the population sample into two groups depending on their risk of having an ED: when their score was ≥2, they were sorted in the “SCOFF positive” group, and when their score was <2, in the “SCOFF negative” group. The SCOFF questionnaire is presented in Table 2 .

Sick-Control-One Stone-Fat-Food (SCOFF) questionnaire.

	Yes	No
1—Do you make yourself sick because you feel uncomfortably full?	□	□
2—Do you worry you have lost control over how much you eat?	□	□
3—Have you recently lost over 1 stone (14 lb) in a 3-month period?	□	□
4—Do you believe yourself to be fat when others say you are too thin?	□	□
5—Would you say that food dominates your life?	□	□

Yes = 1 point; score of ≥2 suggests an eating disorder.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

A descriptive statistical analysis was conducted for the entire sample. Continuous variables are described by means and standard deviations, while categorical variables are presented as numbers and percentages.

We asked all participants to complete the SCOFF questionnaire, so that they were sorted into two groups depending on their results: the “SCOFF+” group gathering all participants with a SCOFF score of 2 or over, and therefore with the risk of suffering from an ED, and the “SCOFF−” group gathering all participants with a SCOFF score under 2. These two groups were then compared based on all collected variables. We applied a Student’s t -test for quantitative variables (“age”, “EDI-BD”, “EDI-DT”, and “average BMI”), a Chi-squared test for qualitative variables (“sex”, “level of education”, “social media use frequency”, “time spent”, “body comparison”, “groups of BMI”), and Fisher exact test for multimodal qualitative variables whose theoretical headcount did not allow the use of the Chi-squared test (“posting selfies”).

Then, we looked for an association between the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and the scores measured using the EDI Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness subscales. We thus performed two linear regressions with adjustment for two potential confounding factors (BMI and level of education). Confounding factor status was assessed by searching for an association of the two variables with EDI subscores on the one hand and with the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media on the other hand.

The significance threshold for all these analyses was set at p = 0.05 (α risk of 5%).

Statistical analyses were done using the SPSS software (Statistical Package for Social Science, IBM, Armonk, NY, USA).

3.1. Population Description

In total, 1407 questionnaires were completed, and 1331 were analyzed. A total of 1138 subjects were from the general population, and 193 were ED patients recruited via health workers. Seventy-six completed questionnaires (5.4%) were excluded from the analysis because they did not match the age criteria or because their ED diagnosis was not communicated (for ED patients recruited via health workers). Figure 1 represents the study’s flowchart.

Flow chart of subjects’ inclusion.

The participants’ age ranged from 15 to 35 (M = 24.2, σ = 4.2). Most were women (97.7%). They had, for the most part, a Bachelor’s degree. Mean BMI was 22.3 (σ = 4.2).

Table 3 presents the final sample’s characteristics.

Final sample characteristics and comparison between SCOFF+ and SCOFF− groups.

	Final Sample ( = 1331)		SCOFF− ( = 378)		SCOFF+ ( = 953)		Value
	Mean or Number of Participants	Standard Deviation or Percentage	Mean or Number of Participants	Standard Deviation or Percentage	Mean or Number of Participants	Standard Deviation or Percentage
	24.2	4.2	25.1	4.2	23.9	4.2	<0.001 ***
							(Student’s -test)
							0.012 *
Female	1300	97.7%	363	96.0%	937	98.3%	(Chi-squared test)
Male	31	2.3%	15	4.0%	16	1.7%
							<0.001 ***
Less than Level 12	71	5.3%	16	4%	55	6%	(Chi-squared test)
Level 12	229	17.2%	62	16%	167	18%
Level 12 + 2 years	208	15.6%	50	13%	158	17%
Level 12 + 3 (Bachelor’s degree)	320	24.0%	89	24%	231	24%
Level 12 + 5 (Master’s degree)	380	0.285	96	25%	284	30%
Degree over Level 12 + 5	123	0.092	65	17%	58	6%
							<0.001 ***
Max. once a day	64	5%	17	4%	47	5%	(Chi-squared test)
2 to 10 times a day	578	43%	194	51%	384	40%
10 to 20 times a day	439	33%	115	30%	324	34%
Over 20 times a day	250	19%	52	14%	198	21%
							0.010 **
Less than 1 h	232	17%	81	21%	151	16%	(Chi-squared test)
Between 1 and 5 h	1048	79%	289	76%	759	80%
Over 5 h	51	4%	8	2%	43	5%
							<0.001 ***
Never	33	2%	18	5%	15	2%	(Chi-squared test)
Seldom	114	9%	56	15%	58	6%
Sometimes	317	24%	130	34%	187	20%
Often	523	39%	133	35%	390	41%
Always	344	26%	41	11%	303	32%
							<0.001 ***
Never	457	34%	146	39%	311	33%	(Fisher exact test)
1 or 2 times a month	756	57%	199	53%	557	58%
Once a week	93	7%	24	6%	69	7%
3 to 4 times a week	18	1%	7	2%	11	1%
Daily	7	1%	2	1%	5	1%
	12.4	7.5	7.9	6.6	14.2	7	<0.001 ***
							(Student test)
	8.9	6	4.1	4.2	10.8	5.5	<0.001 ***
							(Student test)
	22.3	4.2	22.2	3.5	22.3	4.5	0.575
							(Student test)
							<0.001 ***
<17.5	96	7.2%	9	2.4%	87	9.1%	(Chi-squared test)
[17.5–25]	981	73.7%	306	81.0%	675	70.8%
≥25	254	19.1%	63	16.7%	191	20.0%

Note. BDI: body mass index; EDI-IC: Eating Disorder Inventory—Body Dissatisfaction; EDI-RM: Eating Disorder Inventory—Drive for Thinness. *: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001. According to the International Classification of Diseases, anorexia nervosa is associated with a BMI < 17.5.

Most participants declared using Facebook (93%) and Instagram (92.8%). Other social media were less frequently used: Snapchat (68.4%), Twitter (29.1%), and Tiktok (2.5%).

In total, 57.3% of participants had a private account and 42.7% an account open to the public. Users declared that they used social media mainly to “like posts” (82.7%) and to “observe content, as ghost followers (bots or inactive accounts)” (65.4%). In total, 92.7% said that they used social media to “follow friends and acquaintances”, “follow healthy food content” (68%), “follow the news” (67%), and “follow fitness content” (61.2%).

Regarding participants recruited via health workers for whom data were analyzed (N = 193), the most frequently reported ED was anorexia nervosa restricting type (41%), followed by anorexia nervosa purging type (28%), binge eating disorder (16%), bulimia nervosa (12%), and unspecified feeding or eating disorder (9%).

3.2. Comparing Participants Based on Their ED Screening

The final sample was sorted into two groups according to the SCOFF’s results ( n = 953 in the SCOFF+ group; n = 378 in the SCOFF− group). These groups were compared using all described variables, and the results are showcased in Table 3 .

SCOFF+ group subjects had a significantly higher social media use (regarding both frequency and time spent), a significantly higher frequency of comparing their physical appearance to that of people they followed, and of posting selfies.

In addition, they declared having significantly higher EDI-BD and EDI-DT scores than SCOFF− subjects ( p < 0.001), and they more frequently had BMI both in the lower and higher ranges.

3.3. Association between the Frequency of Comparing One’s Own Physical Appearance to That of People Followed on Social Media and EDI Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness

In the search for confounding factors associated with both the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and EDI-BD and EDI-DT scores, we found a significant association between the level of education and the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media ( Table 4 ). Similarly, we observed an association between the modality “Level of education ≥12” and EDI-BD: participants with a level of education ≥12 had a mean EDI-BD score 2.5 points lower compared to that of participants with a level of education <12 ( Table 5 ). We also found a similar association between the modality “Level of education ≥12” and EDI-DT: participants with a level of education ≥12 had a mean EDI-DT score 3 points lower compared to that of participants with a level of education <12 ( Table 6 ).

Association between level of education and frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media.

	Chi-Squared Test	-Value
Frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance	38.165	0.008 **

Note. **: p < 0.01.

One-way ANOVA results looking for a link between EDI-BD score and level of education.

	Estimates	-Value
Intercept	13.620	<2 × 10 ***
Studies level: Less than level 12
Studies level: Level 12	−0.672	0.507
Studies level: Level 12 + 2 years	−0.778	0.447
Studies level: Level 12 + 3 (Bachelor’s degree)	−1.560	0.110
Studies level: Level 12 + 5 (Master’s degree)	−1.307	0.175
Degree over Level 12 + 5	−2.538	0.022 *

Global p -value = 0.1338. Note: The modality “Less than level 12” was chosen as the reference modality for this analysis. *: p < 0.05; ***: p < 0.001.

One-way ANOVA results looking for a link between EDI-DT score and level of education.

	Estimates	-Value
Intercept	10.141	<2 × 10 ***
Studies level: Less than level 12
Studies level: Level 12	−0.730	0.368
Studies level: Level 12 + 2 years	−0.477	0.561
Studies level: Level 12 + 3 (Bachelor’s degree)	−1.328	0.090
Studies level: Level 12 + 5 (Master’s degree)	−1.451	0.061
Degree over Level 12 + 5	−3.019	0.0007 ***

Global p -value = 0.0016. Note: The modality “Less than level 12” was chosen as the reference modality for this analysis. ***: p < 0.001.

Furthermore, we did not find any significant association between BMI and the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media ( Table 7 ). A significant but very weak correlation (<0.3) was found between the BMI and the two EDI subscores ( Table 8 ). In view of these results, we did not retain BMI as a confounding factor for the following analysis.

One-way ANOVA results looking for a link between BMI and frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media.

	Estimates	-Value
Intercept	21.109	<2 × 10 ***
Body comparison: Never
Body comparison: Seldom	1.002	0.233
Body comparison: Sometimes	1.049	0.177
Body comparison: Often	1.155	0.130
Body comparison: Always	1.384	0.074

Global p -value = 0.4368. Note: The modality “Never” was chosen as the reference modality for this analysis. ***: p < 0.001.

Results of association between BMI and EDI scores.

	Coefficient de Correlation de Pearson Avec son IC à 95%	-Value
EDI-DT	0.071 [0.017; 0.1239]	0.0099 **
EDI-BD	0.253 [0.202; 0.302]	<0.001 ***

Note. EDI-BD: Eating Disorder Inventory—Body Dissatisfaction. **: p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001.

The results of the search for an association between the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and EDI Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness scores are presented in Table 9 and Table 10 . As showcased in Table 9 , the “Sometimes”, “Often”, and “Always” frequency of comparing modalities were significantly associated with the EDI-DT score. Participants who sometimes compared their own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media had a mean EDI-DT score 2.0 points higher than that of those who never compared themselves; those who often compared themselves had a mean EDI-DT score 5.3 points higher; and those who always compared themselves had a mean EDI-DT score 8.4 points higher.

Linear regression looking for a link between EDI-DT score and frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media.

	Estimates	-Value
Intercept	5.859	8.7 × 10 ***
Body comparison: Never
Body comparison: Seldom	0.438	0.678
Body comparison: Sometimes	2.021	0.038 *
Body comparison: Often	5.314	3.4 × 10 ***
Body comparison: Always	8.421	<2.2 × 10 ***
Studies level: Less than level 12
Studies level: Level 12	−1.399	0.053
Studies level: Level 12 + 2 years	−1.415	0.0539
Studies level: Level 12 + 3 (Bachelor’s degree)	−1.723	0.0138 *
Studies level: Level 12 + 5 (Master’s degree)	−1.999	0.0038 **
Degree over Level 12 + 5	−2.936	0.0002 ***

Global p -value <2.2 × 10 −16 ***. Note: Modalities “Less than level 12” and “Never” were chosen as the reference modalities for this analysis. *: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001.

Linear regression looking for a link between EDI-BD score and frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media.

	Estimates	-Value
Intercept	9.087	1.1 × 10 ***
Body comparison: Never
Body comparison: Seldom	1.225	0.365
Body comparison: Sometimes	1.768	0.158
Body comparison: Often	5.564	6.5 × 10 ***
Body comparison: Always	9.226	2.4 × 10 ***
Studies level: Less than level 12
Studies level: Level 12	−1.437	0.122
Studies level: Level 12 + 2 years	−1.785	0.058
Studies level: Level 12 + 3 (Bachelor’s degree)	−1.986	0.027 *
Studies level: Level 12 + 5 (Master’s degree)	−1.940	0.029 *
Degree over Level 12 + 5	−2.471	0.016 *

Global p -value <2.2 × 10 −16 ***. Note: Modalities “Less than level 12” and “Never” were chosen as the reference modalities for this analysis. *: p < 0.05; ***: p < 0.001.

In addition, according to Table 10 , the “Often” and “Always” frequency of comparing modalities were significantly associated with the EDI-BD score. Participants who often compared their own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media had a mean EDI-BD score 5.6 points higher than that of those who did not, and those who always compared themselves to social media images had an average EDI-BD score 9.2 points higher than that of those who never did.

4. Discussion

4.1. discussing the main results.

Our survey aimed to study the links between social media use, body image disorders, and ED prevalence in a teenage and young adult population.

First, we found that ED or at-risk of ED subjects presented significantly different results concerning all social media use parameters. Using platforms such as Facebook and Instagram has been particularly associated with a higher body dissatisfaction and the appearance of ED symptoms [ 27 , 34 ]. As was expected, in ED or at-risk of ED patients, Body Dissatisfaction rates were higher, as was their Drive for Thinness. A common ED assumption is that ED patients develop a cognitive structure that focalizes on weight, combined with, most of the time, a mistaken perception of their own body image, especially in anorexia nervosa. These subjects tend to yearn for a thinner body ideal than the general population, thus creating a substantial inconsistency between what they think they look like and what they yearn to look like [ 35 ]. Leahey and her colleagues in 2011 [ 36 ] found that, in addition to increasing body dissatisfaction, social comparisons have an influence on negative effects, guilt, as well as diets and physical-activity-centered thoughts.

Participants in general were seldom prone to posting selfies. Ridgway and her colleagues [ 37 ] conducted in 2018 a study on Instagram and posting selfies, which showed that a higher body image satisfaction was associated with an increase in posting selfies. This could explain the low percentage of self-promoting subjects found in this study.

Second, we confirmed the existence of a significant association between, on one hand, the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and, on the other hand, Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness scores measured using the EDI scale. It seems that the more the subjects compared themselves to the images, the more they increased their body dissatisfaction and their drive for thinness. However, this association can work two ways. Indeed, it could be that the depth of body dissatisfaction and the drive for thinness increase the inclination to compare oneself to images. Our results are in accordance with those found in the literature, which identified a link between social media use and body image disorders [ 26 , 38 , 39 ]. It has also been found that subjects who often compared their physical appearance to that of idealized images were more dissatisfied with their body and had a higher drive for thinness than those who compared themselves less often [ 40 , 41 ]. Interestingly, the level of education was a confounding factor in this relationship, while BMI was not. Indeed, the relation between frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media on the one hand and EDI DT and BD subscores on the other hand is modified by the level of education, starting from a level corresponding to a Bachelor’s degree (>12 + 3 years).

Self-assessment is a fundamental reflexive analysis tool [ 42 ]. It plays an essential part in self-positioning among others and oneself. This self-evaluation must resort to social comparisons, which have a direct link to self-esteem. Body image’s sociocultural construct takes shape using body ideals that are broadcasted through, in particular, media, family, and peers and are thereafter internalized by individuals [ 43 ]. Reaching these body norms is usually perceived as proof of self-control and success, which leads one to stand out from the crowd in a positive way [ 44 ]. Internalizing body ideals thus creates an authentic concern for one’s physical appearance, which will be observed and judged by others [ 45 ]. This can trigger body dissatisfaction, which usually involves feeling inadequate in one’s body, estranged from the ideal one pursues [ 43 ]. Fear of gaining weight can be exacerbated when thinness is one of narcissism’s only tools. It can lead to behaviors such as food restriction, excessive physical activity, with the aim of modifying one’s appearance and thus fit into social standards. This excessive self-surveillance can bring about emotional and psychological consequences, including shame about one’s own body, self-bashing, anxiety, and depression, up to ED [ 46 ].

Finally, although estimating ED prevalence in a young adult population was not an objective determined beforehand, we must point out that most participants had a SCOFF+ result (71%), suggesting they might suffer from an ED. This questions whether a more systematic ED screening should be done in teenage and young adult populations, which are ED’s main targets. Several studies in which teenagers were interviewed have shown that they often are dissatisfied with their bodies, feeling like they are “too fat”, and most of them have already followed a diet [ 47 , 48 , 49 ]. These diets can include ingesting smaller portions, eating healthier food, up to major food restrictions and complete removal of some types of food, which can be found in ED.

4.2. Study’s Strengths and Weaknesses

There are several limits to this study. First, it is a transversal study, which cannot prove the existence of a causal relationship between the studied variables. Therefore, longitudinal studies are necessary in finding out how this association works. Second, the online questionnaire was not designed to collect data that could be considered as indicators of individual or family vulnerabilities for ED, which did not allow for stratified analyses. Third, measuring the time spent on social media and how often participants used it was done through self-reported data, which could induce a declaration bias, thus limiting the data’s precision. Future studies could use technologies such as data tracking (virtual counter measuring connection frequency and time spent) in order to have more precise data and thus be more confident in the data’s reliability. Fourth, the participants’ recruitment induced a selection bias. Indeed, having used daily use of social media as an inclusion criterion leads to selecting a certain type of population and renders irrelevant any extrapolation to the general population. Moreover, recruiting via gyms may have led to selecting individuals with a specific concern for their body image. We can assume that these subjects, who paid specific attention to their physical appearance, might have certain demands concerning themselves, which might involve body dissatisfaction and an exaggerated drive for thinness. The daily use of social networks could also be a reflection of excessive body concerns, which could lead to more body dissatisfaction and a more pronounced drive for thinness compared to subjects who are less exposed to these kinds of media. Fifth, our participants recruited via health workers may not be representative of all ED patients for several reasons: ED diagnosis was self-reported, anorexia nervosa restricting type was overrepresented in our sample, and the most severe patients may not be psychologically available to participate in a study like this one. Finally, the SCOFF questionnaire is a screening tool and not a diagnostic one. It does not enable discriminating between anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or binge eating disorder among participants, but we can assume that all types of ED were present in the SCOFF+ group, as the participants in this group more frequently had BMI both in the lower and higher ranges.

However, these limits are balanced by the study’s strengths. First, the sample rallied a significant number of participants, and their sorting into two groups after ED screening was quite proportionate, which ensured the statistical analyses’ power. Second, EDs were screened using a validated tool for the general population, and the Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness dimensions were evaluated using a self-questionnaire whose psychometric characteristics have been validated in clinical populations. Finally, to the extent of our knowledge, this type of study had never been conducted in France, thus bringing forth unprecedented data.

4.3. Perspectives

This study’s results open new avenues for clinicians to explore social media use and cognitive pathways in ED. Indeed, social media exposure and, in particular, exposure to edited and idealized images could contribute to inaccurate thought processes about body image, internalizing what is socially valued on social media as a personal goal. Since we know that cognitive pathways play an important part in ED development and continuation [ 50 ], it seems relevant to explore patients’ use of social media and the cognitions associated. This could contribute to increasing psychotherapy’s efficacy, enriching prevention programs using cognitive dissonance, therapies that have been proven to be effective in reducing ED symptoms’ intensity [ 51 ]. A way to implement this could be to encourage the development of the ability to question social media, encouraging patients to think of arguments that go against posting idealized photos on social media [ 27 ].

When considering the general population, when we see how important social comparison based on physical appearance is in developing body dissatisfaction, prevention programs could be useful. It seems relevant to encourage teenagers, particularly those with the tendency to compare themselves to their peers, to evaluate their body using health criteria instead of using other peoples’ bodies as a standard. Additionally, it would be interesting to intervene by deconstructing the “ideal body” myth, with the goal of diminishing the comparison to “idols”. Finally, it seems relevant to inform people that some role models’ BMI and body type are not representative of those of most of the population and that trying to reach their body type could be harmful. ED screening in this population should thus be more systematic.

5. Conclusions

To summarize, we found an association between the frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people followed on social media and body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. Interestingly, the level of education was a confounding factor in this relationship, while BMI was not. The widespread use of social media in teenagers and young adults could increase body dissatisfaction as well as their drive for thinness, therefore rendering them more vulnerable to eating disorders.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the French Federation for Anorexia and Bulimia (Fédération Française Anorexie-Boulimie (FFAB)), who allowed the broadcasting of the questionnaire to its members, ED-specialized health workers.

Author Contributions

Study concept and design: B.J., B.R., and M.G.-B. Analysis and interpretation of data: B.J., B.N., B.R., and M.G.-B. Statistical analysis: M.D. Study supervision: B.R. and M.G.-B. Investigation (data collection): B.J., B.R., and M.G.-B. Writing—original draft: B.J. and B.N. Critical revision: M.D., B.R., and M.G.-B. Writing—revised version of the manuscript: B.J., M.D., and M.G.-B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Since the study was an investigation involving the health field, but with an objective that did not involve the development of biological or medical knowledge, it not fit in the French Jardé legal framework. The approval from an ethics committee was not required according to the current French legislation.

Informed Consent Statement

Data collection was made anonymously. According to the current French legislation, answering the questionnaire was interpreted as consent for data use.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

TOPIC SENTENCE/ In his numerous writings, Marx critiques capitalism by identifying its flaws. ANALYSIS OF EVIDENCE/ By critiquing the political economy and capitalism, Marx implores his reader to think critically about their position in society and restores awareness in the proletariat class. EVIDENCE/ To Marx, capitalism is a system characterized by the “exploitation of the many by the few,” in which workers accept the exploitation of their labor and receive only harm of “alienation,” rather than true benefits ( MER 487). He writes that “labour produces for the rich wonderful things – but for the worker it produces privation. It produces palaces—but for the worker, hovels. It produces beauty—but for the worker, deformity” (MER 73). Marx argues capitalism is a system in which the laborer is repeatedly harmed and estranged from himself, his labor, and other people, while the owner of his labor – the capitalist – receives the benefits ( MER 74). And while industry progresses, the worker “sinks deeper and deeper below the conditions of existence of his own class” ( MER 483).  ANALYSIS OF EVIDENCE/ But while Marx critiques the political economy, he does not explicitly say “capitalism is wrong.” Rather, his close examination of the system makes its flaws obvious. Only once the working class realizes the flaws of the system, Marx believes, will they - must they - rise up against their bourgeois masters and achieve the necessary and inevitable communist revolution.

Not every paragraph will be structured exactly like this one, of course. But as you draft your own paragraphs, look for all three of these elements: topic sentence, evidence, and analysis.

• picture_as_pdf Anatomy Of a Body Paragraph

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Research Paper Body Paragraph Structure

Introduction.

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Learning the basics of a paragraph structure

• Title (cover page).
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• Conclusion.
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5 winning ways to start a body paragraph

• Topic Sentence : it should provide a clear focus and introduce the specific aspect you will discuss. For example, “One key factor influencing climate change is…”.
• Opening Statement: grab your readers’ attention with a thought-provoking or surprising statement related to your topic. For instance, “The alarming increase in global temperatures has reached a critical point, demanding immediate action.”
• Quotation: find a relevant quote from a reputable source. It won’t only add credibility to your research but will also engage the reader right from the start.
• Anecdote or example: start your academic paragraph with a funny story or a real-world example that illustrates the significance of your research topic.
• Background information : provide a brief background or context for the topic you are about to discuss. For example, “In recent years, the prevalence of cyber-attacks has skyrocketed, posing a severe threat to individuals, organizations, and even national security.”

A step-by-step guide to starting a concise body paragraph

Step 1: introduce the main point or argument., step 2: provide evidence or examples., step 3: explain and analyze., step 4: connect to the main argument., step 5: review and revise., flawless body paragraph example: how does it look.

• Topic Sentence: Rising global temperatures have significant implications for ecosystems and biodiversity.
• Evidence/Example 1: According to a study by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global average temperatures have increased by 1.1 degrees Celsius since pre-industrial times (IPCC, 2021). This temperature rise has led to melting polar ice caps and glaciers, rising sea levels, and coastal erosion (Smith et al., 2019).
• Explanation/Analysis 1: The significant increase in global temperatures has caused observable changes in the Earth’s physical environment. The melting of polar ice caps not only contributes to the rise in sea levels but also disrupts marine ecosystems.
• Evidence/Example 2: In addition to the loss of coastal habitats, higher temperatures have also resulted in shifts in the geographical distribution of species. Research by Parmesan and Yohe (2019) indicates that many plant and animal species have altered their ranges and migration patterns in response to changing climate conditions.
• Explanation/Analysis 2: The observed shifts in species distribution highlight the vulnerability of ecosystems to climate change. As temperature zone modification, species that cannot adapt or migrate to suitable habitats may face reduced reproductive success and increased risk of extinction.
• Connect to the main argument: These examples demonstrate that the rising global temperatures associated with climate change have profound implications for ecosystems and biodiversity.

The bottom line

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Body Recomposition: Can Trained Individuals Build Muscle and Lose Fat at the Same Time?

Barakat, Christopher MS, ATC, CISSN 1 ; Pearson, Jeremy MS 1 ; Escalante, Guillermo DSc, MBA, ATC, CSCS, CISSN 2 ; Campbell, Bill PhD, CSCS, FISSN 3 ; De Souza, Eduardo O. PhD 1

1 Department of Health Sciences and Human Performance, The University of Tampa, Tampa, Florida;

2 Department of Kinesiology, California State University, San Bernardino, California; and

3 Performance & Physique Enhancement Laboratory, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida

Address correspondence to Dr. Eduardo O. De Souza, [email protected] .

Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: The authors report no conflicts of interest and no source of funding.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives License 4.0 (CCBY-NC-ND) , where it is permissible to download and share the work provided it is properly cited. The work cannot be changed in any way or used commercially without permission from the journal.

Despite the lack of standardized terminology, building muscle and losing fat concomitantly has been referred to as body recomposition by practitioners. Although many suggest that this only occurs in untrained/novice and overweight/obese populations, there is a substantial amount of literature demonstrating this body recomposition phenomenon in resistance-trained individuals. Moreover, 2 key factors influencing these adaptations are progressive resistance training coupled with evidence-based nutritional strategies. This review examines some of the current literature demonstrating body recomposition in various trained populations, the aforementioned key factors, nontraining/nutrition variables (i.e., sleep, hormones), and potential limitations due to body composition assessments. In addition, this review points out the areas where more research is warranted.

INTRODUCTION

A common goal among active individuals is to improve their body composition by increasing skeletal muscle mass and decreasing fat mass (FM). It is well understood that these positive body composition changes have a multitude of health benefits ( 2,45,66 ) and have also been shown to improve athletic performance ( 12,60 ). Among physique competitors (e.g., individuals who compete in bodybuilding, figure, bikini, etc.), increasing muscle and losing body fat is also of critical importance to be successful in their sport. Despite the lack of standardized terminology, practitioners have described this adaptive phenomenon in which muscle mass is gained and FM is lost concomitantly as body recomposition.

It is generally thought that body recomposition occurs mainly in both the untrained/novice and overweight/obese populations. When examining the literature, this dogma seems logical because training age and also the novelty of initiating a resistance training (RT) program have been shown to directly impact the rate of muscle mass accrual ( 30,49,67 ). Within RT programs, practitioners can manipulate training variables (e.g., intensity, volume, exercise selection, etc.) as a means to enhance the muscle hypertrophic stimulus. Moreover, aerobic exercise is commonly implemented within training regimens to decrease FM ( 5 ). In addition, research has shown that the combination of both RT and aerobic exercise (i.e., concurrent training) can be an effective approach to optimize body recomposition ( 5,57 ). Thus, practitioners, coaches, and trainers commonly recommend concurrent training for individuals aiming to gain muscle and lose fat ( 24 ). Most importantly, despite the zeitgeist that well-trained individuals cannot gain muscle mass and lose fat simultaneously, there have been many chronic randomized controlled trials conducted in resistance-trained individuals that have demonstrated body recomposition ( 3,13,16,21,36,52,62,72 ).

In addition, dietary intake (i.e., energy balance, macronutrients, etc.) has been shown to influence body composition alone ( 6,11,23,25,28,31,54 ). Moreover, when combined with RT, body recomposition is potentiated to a greater degree ( 3,13,21 ). For example, protein intake is commonly manipulated among individuals seeking to maximize RT outcomes. There is evidence exhibiting recomposition effects when individuals are engaged in RT and are consuming a high dietary protein intake (i.e., >2.0 g/kg/d) ( 3,13,21 ). Interestingly, there are also data demonstrating that reductions in FM can occur in well-trained subjects with hypercaloric intakes, specifically when the surplus is due to an increase in protein ( 13,22 ). Collectively, those studies suggest that evidence-based nutritional strategies can further enhance body recomposition in trained individuals.

Physique competitors carefully manipulate both their training and nutritional programs to maximize muscle mass and decrease FM to present their most aesthetic physique. During the “off-season,” they strive to accumulate as much muscle mass as possible, while minimizing FM gained in a hypercaloric state ( 24 ). However, most case studies on physique competitors through contest preparation do not demonstrate a recomposition effect ( 33,48,56 ). During this phase, competitors restrict their caloric intake, and increase energy expenditure to attain extremely low levels of body fat. This hypoenergetic state has been shown to negatively impact many variables that can affect body recomposition such as sleep, hormones, and metabolism ( 35,46,69,71 ). Therefore, these intense physical demands significantly stress the body and make recomposition difficult for this population.

When analyzing the current literature demonstrating body recomposition in trained individuals, it is important to consider contextual differences between studies (i.e., body composition assessments, training design, duration, nutritional control, etc.) and their potential to impact the outcomes ( Tables 1–4 ). Therefore, the purpose of this review is to discuss the existing literature that has reported body recomposition among resistance-trained individuals. Second, we will address the contrasting results reported in the literature among a majority of competitive physique athletes during contest preparation.

Method	Advantages	Disadvantages
4C	It is considered the gold standard One of the best methods for estimating body composition It enables the calculation of FFM hydration It measures total body water	It is time-consuming It is not accessible for most practitioners and coaches
DEXA	3-compartment model: Able to measure FFM, FM, and bone mineral content Able to measure a region of interest specifically in extremities	Nutritional/hydration status can significantly alter body composition and decrease accuracy Limited use for measuring baseline FM or longitudinal changes in FM with weight loss because measurements are known to be biased by body size (thickness)
BodPod	Could provide longitudinal data on both FFM and FM mass because its accuracy is less likely to be affected by changes in fatness.	Cannot provide regional data and can only distinguish between FM and FFM (i.e., bone, muscle, connective tissue). It assumes fixed densities of FM and FFM
Hydrostatic weighing	Valid estimate for body density	Expensive, not easily accessible Uncomfortable It assumes fixed densities of FM and FFM
A-mode ultrasound	Capable of regional and segmental measurements Valid in the hands of an experienced technician Portability	Depending on technician, there can be a high possibility of intrarater reliability Most of the equations/formulas were based on caliper validation

Study	Training status/demographic	Study design	Training intervention	BC assessment	Nutrition	Conclusions
Alcaraz et al. ( )	Resistance-trained men with at least 1 y of RT experience and can produce a force equal to twice their body mass during an isometric squat	Counterbalanced repeated-measures design. Participants were randomly assigned to high-resistance circuit (HRC) training or Traditional strength training (TST). 8-wk intervention	Both groups performed 6RM sets to failure for 6 total compound and isolation exercises 3 d/wk	DEXA	NR	Both groups increased FFM, and lost a non-significant amount of FM. HRC (FFM +1.5, FM −1.1) TST (FFM + 1.2, FM −0.8)
Colquhoun et al. ( )	RT college males with ≥6 mo experience. 1RM squat: BM ratio-low frequency 1.7 high frequency 1.6 1RM bench: BM ratio-low frequency 1.3 high frequency 1.2 1RM deadlift: BM ratio-low frequency 2.0 high frequency 2.0	Counterbalanced, parallel-groups repeated-measures design. Participants were randomly assigned to low frequency (3×/wk) or high frequency (6×/wk). 6-wk intervention	Daily undulating periodization program designed to target the powerlifts (squat, bench press, and deadlift) while equating intensity and volume	A-mode ultrasound	NR	Both groups increased FFM, and lost a non-significant amount of FM. Low frequency (FFM +1.7, FM −0.3) High frequency (FFM +2.6, FM −0.1)
Wilborn et al. ( )	NCAA Division III female basketball players (at least 1 y RT experience)	Parallel-group repeated-measures design. Participants were randomly assigned to whey (W) or casein (C). 8-wk training period	Full-body undulating periodized program 4 d/wk. Sport-specific conditioning 3 d/wk	DEXA	NR	Both groups increased FFM and lost FM. W (FFM +1.5 , FM −1.3 ) C (FFM +1.4 , FM −0.6 )
Yue et al. ( )	Recreationally trained men with average 3 y RT experience 1RM squat: BM ratio LV-HF 1.3 ± 0.3 HV-LF 1.1 ± 0.1 1RM bench: BM ratio LV-HF 1.0 ± 0.2 HV-LF 0.9 ± 0.2	Parallel-group repeated-measures design. Participants were randomly assigned to low training volume-high frequency (LV-HF) or High training volume-low frequency group (HV-LF)	6-wk hypertrophy/strength program	BodPod	NR	Both groups increased FFM, and lost a non-significant amount of FM. LV-HF (FFM +1.2, FM −0.6) HV-LF (FFM +1.4, FM −2.4)

Study	Training status/demographic	Study design	Training intervention	BC assessment	Nutrition	Conclusions
Antonio et al. ( )	Resistance-trained men and women who had been weight training regularly Avg Normal pro: 2.4 ± 1.7 High pro: 4.9 ± 4.1	Parallel-group repeated-measures design. Participants were randomly assigned to normal protein (NP) or high protein (HP) groups. 8-wk heavy resistance training program	Hypertrophy-oriented upper and lower split routine program 5 d/wk	BodPod	NP group maintained the same dietary habits (2.3 g PRO/kg/d) HP group consumed (3.4 g PRO/kg/d) Total calories-NP: 2,119 HP: 2,614	Both groups increased FFM and lost FM. NP (FFM +1.5 , FM −0.3 ) HP (FFM +1.5 , FM −1.6 )
Antonio et al. ( )	Resistance-trained men and women who had been weight training regularly (8.9 ± 6.7 y and an average of 8.5 ± 3.3 h per wk)	Counterbalanced-group repeated-measures design. Participants were randomly assigned to NP or HP groups. Subjects performed training outside of laboratory and reported total volume load at baseline and posttesting. 8-wk intervention	Participants exercised outside of the laboratory and were asked to track their total volume load	BodPod	NP group maintained the same dietary habits (1.8 g PRO/kg/d) HP group consumed 4.4 g PRO/kg/d. Total Cal- NP: 2,052 HP: 2,835	Both groups increased FFM and reduced body fat percentage to a non-significant degree. The HP group lost a non-significant amount of FM and the NP group gained a trivial amount of FM. NP (FFM +1.3, FM +0.3) HP (FFM +1.9, FM −0.2)
Campbell et al. ( )	Aspiring female physique athletes able to deadlift 1.5× BM and ≥3 mo RT 1RM squat: BM ratio-High protein group 1.1 Low protein group 1.2 1RM deadlift: BM ratio- high protein group 1.4 Low protein group 1.6	Parallel-group repeated-measures design. Participants were randomly assigned to HP or low protein (LP). 8-wk intervention	Hypertrophy-oriented upper and lower split routine program. 4 d/wk	A-mode ultrasound	LP group consumed (0.9 g PRO/kg/d) HP group consumed (2.5 g PRO/kg/d) Total Cal- HP: 1,839 LP: 1,416	Both groups increased FFM, however only the HP group lost a significant amount of FM. HP (FFM +2.1 , FM −1.1 ) LP (FFM +0.6 , FM −0.8)
Cribb et al. ( )	Recreational bodybuilders with at least 2 y of RT experience 1RM squat: BM ratio- Both groups 0.9 ± 0.1 1RM bench: BM ratio-whey group 1.0 ± 0.1 Casein group 1.1 ± 0.1	Parallel-group repeated-measures design. Participants were randomly assigned to whey protein (W) or casein protein (C) groups. 10-wk training period	Linear progressive overload program. Designed for maximizing strength and hypertrophy was divided into 3 phases; preparatory (70–75% of 1RM), overload phase-1 (80–85% of 1RM), and overload phase-2 (90–95% of 1RM). Upper and lower split routine	DEXA	Both groups on average consumed 2.1 g PRO/kg/d during the study.	Both groups increased FFM. However, only the W group lost FM. W (FFM +5.0, FM −1.4 ) C (FFM +0.8, FM +0.1)
Haun et al. ( )	Resistance-trained young men with minimum estimated 1.5 × BM squat 3RM squat: BM ratio-1.6 3RM bench: BM ratio-1.2	Parallel-group repeated-measures design. Participants were partitioned to maltodextrin (M), whey protein (WP), or graded whey protein (GWP) groups. 6-wk training period	Linear progressive overload program. Full-body 3×/wk. Sets would increase each wk but repetitions remained at a goal of 10 per exercise.	DEXA	All groups aimed for a 500 calorie surplus and 1.6 g/PRO/kg/d during the first wk of the study. The groups on average consumed 2.2 g/PRO/kg/d throughout the study.	All groups increased FFM but only the W and GWP lost FM. M (FFM +2.3, FM +0.2) WP (FFM +1.7, FM −0.7 ) GWP (FFM +2.9, FM −1.0 )
Kreipke et al. ( )	Resistance-trained young men (≥1 y training in the squat, bench, and deadlift) 1RM squat: BM ratio-both groups 1.6 1RM bench: BM ratio-Placebo 1.2 Preworkout 1.3 1RM deadlift: BM ratio-Placebo 2.0 Preworkout 2.1	Parallel-group repeated-measures design. Participants were randomly assigned to placebo (PL) or Preworkout supplement (SUP) 4-wk training period	4 d/wk progressive, strength-oriented powerlifting regimen. 5 × 5 and 3 × 10 of compound exercises performed to volitional fatigue	DEXA	No differences in PRO or caloric intake. Avg PRO intake: 2.1 g/kg/d	Both groups increased FFM but only the PL group lost a significant amount of FM. PL (FFM +1.1, FM −0.7 ) SUP (FFM +1.3, FM −0.2)
Slater et al. ( )	Elite male water polo and rowers Avg RT experience PL: 7.1 ± 1.7 HMB: 7.4 ± 2.0 trHMB: 6.9 ± 0.8	Parallel-group repeated-measures design. Participants were randomly assigned to placebo (PL), HMB, or time released HMB (trHMB) groups. 6-wk training period	Full-body strength-oriented program composed of mainly compound exercises with 24–32 sets per session	DEXA	All groups on average consumed 2.4 g PRO/kg/d and increased mean energy intake 224 kJ/kg/d during the study	All groups gained FFM. However, reductions in FM were non-significant. PL (LBM +0.9, FM −0.4) HMB (LBM +1.2, FM −1.0) trHMB (LBM +3.5, FM −2.5)
Rauch et al. ( )	NCAA Division II female volleyball players 1RM squat: BM ratio 1.1	Parallel-group repeated-measures design. Participants were randomly assigned to optimal training load (OTL) or Progressive velocity-based training (PVBT)	7-wk (3 d/wk) power-oriented full-body program	DEXA	No differences in PRO or caloric intake. Avg PRO intake: 1.6 g/kg/d	Both groups increased FFM and lost FM. OTL (FFM +2.7, FM −2.7 ) PVBT (FFM +2.7, FM −2.1 )

Study	Competitor demographic	Resistance training	Aerobic	BC assessment	Nutrition supplements	Conclusions
Halliday et al. ( )	27-y-old drug-free amateur female figure competitor 20-wk prep + 20-wk recovery	Prep: 4–5 d/wk High-volume program training each muscle group 2–3×/wk Recovery: 3–4 d/wk high-volume program	Prep: (10–30) min HIIT 1–2 d/wk and (45–120 min) aerobic exercise 1 d/wk Recovery: (10–30 min) HIIT 1–2 d/wk and (45–60 min) aerobic exercise 1 d/wk	DEXA	≥2.2 g/kg PRO daily throughout prep and recovery Supplements used: whey and casein protein and 5 g/d of creatine monohydrate	Body fat decreased from 15.1% (8.3 kg) at baseline to 8.6% (4.3 kg) one wk out of competition. FFM was maintained at 44.3 kg throughout 20-wk prep 20-wk postcomp showed BF% returned to baseline at 14.8%.
Kistler et al. ( )	26-y-old drug-free, amateur male bodybuilder with 10 y RT experience 26-wk prep	5 d/wk 60–90 min sessions Each muscle group trained 2×/wk Day 1: 3–8 reps Day 2: 8–15 reps	Beginning contest prep, two 40-min sessions of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) per wk. End of contest prep, four 60-min sessions of HIIT and two 30-min sessions of low-intensity steady-state (LISS) per wk	DEXA	250 g PRO daily for all prep Supplements used: 30 g BCAA, 3 g HMB, 2 g fish oil, 5 g creatine mono, 6 g beta alanine, multivitamin	FFM decreased 6.6 kg FM decreased 10.4 kg
Pardue et al. ( )	21-y-old drug-free, amateur male bodybuilder with 8 y RT experience 32-wk prep + 20-wk recovery	5–6 d/wk Each muscle group trained 2×/wk Variety of repetition ranges (4–25 repetitions) and intensities	No aerobic exercise was performed at baseline, but cardio was incrementally increased until reaching a weekly load of two 20-min HIIT sessions and four 30-min medium-intensity steady state (MISS) sessions.	BodPod and DEXA	At baseline, the competitor consumed 3,860 cal (28% protein [3.2 g/kg], 52% carbohydrate [5.9 g/kg], 20% fat [1.0 g/kg]) End of prep, the competitor consumed 1,724 kilocalories (52% protein [2.9 g/kg], 19% carbohydrate [1.1 g/kg], 29% fat [0.7 g/kg]) Supplements used: whey protein, BCAA, creatine monohydrate, beta-alanine, and preworkout	Prep: BF% decreased from 13.4 to 9.6% recovery: BF% increased to 17.2%
Petrizzo et al. ( )	29-y-old drug-free amateur female figure competitor with 8-y RT experience 32-wk prep	Phase 1: 4–5 d/wk for the first 22 wk; phase 2: 6 d/wk for the final 10 wk) High-volume program performing 3× sets to failure each exercise	Phase 1 (20–60): min HIIT 3 d/wk Phase 2 (30–40): min HIIT 4 d/wk	DEXA	>3.2 g/kg PRO daily throughout prep Supplements used: BCAA, whey protein, beta alanine, citrulline malate, alpha-hydroxyisocaproic acid, creatine monohydrate, vitamin B-6	FFM increased 0.7 kg FM decreased 8.0 kg
Rohrig et al. ( )	24-y-old drug-free female competitor with 5-y RT experience 24-wk prep	5 d/wk Each muscle group trained 2×/wk; one with moderate intensity (60–80% 1RM) and volume and one with high intensity (85% + 1RM) and lower volume	Weekly adjustments of HIIT and MISS based on discretion of coach. At end of prep 185 min of MISS with HIIT 3d/wk	Hydrostatic weighing	≥2.0 g/kg PRO daily throughout prep Supplements used: creatine monohydrate, fish oil, and multivitamin	BF% was reduced from 30.45 to 15.85% FFM increased 1.3 kg FM decreased 11.4 kg
Rossow et al. ( )	27-y-old drug-free professional male bodybuilder with 2 y pro status 24-wk prep + 24-wk recovery	4 d/wk Each muscle group trained 2×/wk during the 48-wk	Prep: 1 d/wk of HIIT and 1 d/wk of LISS Recovery: 1 d/wk of HIIT	BodPod and DEXA	Prep period macros: ∼36% PRO, ∼36% carbohydrate (CHO), and ∼28% fat for 5 d/wk and ∼30% PRO, ∼48% CHO, and ∼22% fat for 2 d/wk. Recovery period macros: ∼25–30% PRO, 35–40% CHO, and 30% to 35% fat. Supplements used: whey protein and 5 g/d of creatine monohydrate	Prep: (FFM −2.8 kg) BF% decreased from 14.8 to 4.5% Recovery: (FFM −0.2 kg) BF% increased to 14.6%

ESTIMATING BODY COMPOSITION WITH DIFFERENT ASSESSMENTS

To draw conclusions from each study's results, it is important to understand the methods for assessing body composition, their strengths, weaknesses, and reliability. These assessments rely on different assumptions and vary based on how many compartments it divides an individual's total mass (i.e., 4C, 3C, 2C). Typically, body composition is divided into bone content, lean mass (i.e., muscle, connective tissue, internal organs, etc.), and FM. In addition, it is important to consider that there can be a significant variability/error rate depending on the mode of body composition assessment ( 8,22,68 ). Furthermore, external factors (for example, hydration status [intracellular versus extracellular], nutritional status [fasted versus fed], etc.) can influence the accuracy of how these assessments quantify fat-free mass (FFM) and FM. It is also important to note that precisely quantifying gains in skeletal muscle tissue can be difficult due to its composition (i.e., ∼75% water, ∼15–25% protein, ∼2–3% glycogen, and ∼5% intramuscular triglycerides) ( 19,22,34 ). Therefore, the goal of this section is to provide a simple overview of the body composition methods used in the studies, presented in Tables 2–4 .

The 4-compartment model (4C) that has been considered the gold-standard assessment divides the body into FM, water, bone mineral content, and residual content ( 63,68 ). Moreover, the 4C model also allows for estimation of protein content ( 74 ). However, it is costly and very time-consuming because 4C uses a variety of laboratorial assessments. Two of these laboratory assessments include magnetic-resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography. Recently, the combination of different tools (i.e., DEXA + BIA) has been used to quantify total body volume into 4C.

Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) is a 3-compartment model commonly used to monitor and assess changes in body composition. It can distinguish between bone mineral content, FFM, and FM. Furthermore, it can compartmentalize different regions of the body (i.e., trunk, leg, arm), but is unable to discern between specific muscle groups (e.g., quadriceps/hamstrings, biceps/triceps, etc.) ( 22 ). A recent validation study demonstrated a lower error rate using DEXA for measuring intraindividual, concomitant changes in FFM and FM ( 68 ). In addition, newer models have been shown to have strong test-retest intraclass correlation coefficients while estimating FFM during whole-body scans (e.g., >0.99) ( 32 ). The standard error rate when comparing the criterion MRI to DEXA for estimating body fat percentage is ∼1.6%. It is important to note that some of the recomposition results demonstrated in the training/nutrition literature may be within the standard error rate. Thus, these results must be taken with caution because the magnitude of change in these studies may be due to inherent variation from the measurement method.

Body composition can also be separated into 2 compartments (e.g., FFM and FM) using BodPod, skinfold calipers, bioelectrical impedance, underwater weighing, and ultrasound techniques. Air-displacement plethysmography (BodPod) is an apparatus that estimates body composition based on the inverse relationship between volume and pressure. It measures the amount of air displaced by an individual's body considering thoracic gas volume. A few studies have shown slight discrepancies in accurately determining body fat percentages (range = 1.8–3.6 %BF) when examining air-displacement plethysmography ( 39,43 ). However, BodPod does seem to have a strong test-retest reliability (e.g., >0.99) ( 70 ). In addition, a recent study comparing DEXA to BodPod in collegiate hockey players demonstrated that BodPod significantly overestimated FFM (2.93 ± 2.06 kg) and underestimated FM (3.27 ± 1.92 kg) ( 18 ). Regarding the training/nutrition studies using BodPod at both baseline and posttesting, the absolute values should be taken with caution. However, given the relatively high test-retest reliability for BodPod, more confidence can be given regarding the reported delta changes in FM and FFM.

Finally, another assessment to examine changes in body composition is A-mode ultrasonography. Specifically, this technique can measure muscle thickness and subcutaneous fat. Recently, this method has also been used to calculate total body FFM, FM, and body fat percentage in conjunction with the 7-site Jackson-Pollock formula ( 9 ). This assessment has been reported to be similar to DEXA for estimates of body composition ( 9,51 ). Importantly, training/nutrition studies using A-mode ultrasonography need to consider intraindividual variability when performing body composition assessments.

Due to the potential limitations for each assessment, practitioners need to be aware that minor changes in body composition demonstrated with these tools may be due to inherent variability and/or covariates that were not quantified (e.g., hydration and nutritional status). With that said, when these methods are appropriately used and strictly standardized, there is a stronger likelihood that the results observed are accurate and reliable.

TRAINING STATUS

It is well accepted that training status significantly impacts the rate of progress in body composition. Novice trainees tend to experience greater muscular adaptations compared to advanced lifters. For example, Cribb et al. ( 16 ) reported significant gains in FFM (+5 kg) and reductions in FM (−1.4 kg) in a group of recreationally trained individuals over 10 weeks. However, Antonio et al. ( 4 ) reported that highly trained subjects gained 1.9 kg of FFM and did not demonstrate significant reductions in FM over an 8-week period. Many high-level athletes often take time away from their training regimen (i.e., off-season) or have a period with substantially less work performed (i.e., detraining). This detraining period will likely lead to a temporary reduction in training status, performance, and body composition profile. However, once training resumes, these individuals typically regain their body composition adaptations rapidly ( 47 ). For example, Zemski et al. ( 76 ) reported significant gains in FFM (+1.8 kg) and reductions in FM (−2.2 kg) in elite rugby players after detraining for 4 weeks and then returning for an 11-week high-volume, high-intensity training program during their preseason.

When exploring the literature on physique athletes, most of the data are demonstrated in case studies examining competitors during contest preparation (For details, Table 4 ). Contrary to what has been observed in the aforementioned trained populations, most physique athlete case studies do not demonstrate a body recomposition effect ( 33,48,56 ). This is likely due to the extreme demands of this sport (i.e., energy restriction, high energy expenditure, severely low body fat, negative hormonal adaptations, poor sleep, etc.), which will be discussed later in this review. Interestingly, there is some conflicting evidence demonstrating body recomposition in female physique competitors during their contest preparation phase ( 50,55 ). One potential explanation for the differences between males and females might be associated with hormonal profile. For example, significant reductions in testosterone levels have been observed in males while in a hypoenergetic state, dieting for competition purposes ( 26,44,48,64 ). Therefore, the data on physique athletes are difficult to reconcile due to the unique hypoenergetic demands of their sport in season when compared to other trained populations. Although training status/age seems to impact the magnitude of changes in FFM and FM, more research is warranted to understand how training status can impact body recomposition over time in different trained populations.

TRAINING PRACTICES IN STUDIES WITH TRAINED INDIVIDUALS DEMONSTRATING BODY RECOMPOSITION

Several studies among trained individuals have reported body recomposition where nutritional intake was not reported or was similar between the interventions ( 1,36,52,62,72,75 ). For example, Alcaraz et al. ( 1 ) recruited participants who were able to produce a force equal to twice their body mass during an isometric squat at the beginning of the intervention. The subjects performed 8 weeks of either a high-resistance circuit (HRC) or a traditional strength training (TST) program. Both groups performed 3–6 supervised sets of 6 exercises (3 compound and 3 isolation) using a 6 repetition maximum (RM) to failure. The HRC group used a 35-second interset recovery between exercises and performed the exercises in circuit fashion, whereas the TST group rested 3 minutes between each set of each exercise before moving to the next exercise. Only the HRC group significantly decreased body fat percentage by −1.5%, whereas the TST group did not (−1.1%). However, both groups demonstrated a significant increase in FFM of 1.5 and 1.2 kg, respectively. In addition, in another investigation, researchers examined recreationally trained males with 3 years of RT experience. This six-week study randomized subjects into either a low volume-high frequency (LV-HF) group where participants RT 4 days per week or a high volume-low frequency (HV-LF) group where participants RT 2 days per week ( 75 ). All participants were instructed not to alter their normal nutritional habits. However, the researchers did not report nutritional intake between the groups. Both groups performed the same weekly volume, but the RT volume differed between the sessions. Regarding body composition, both LV-HF and HV-LF groups significantly gained FFM (1.2 and 1.4 kg, respectively). However, the reductions in FM only reached statistical significance in the HV-LF group (−2.4 kg) compared to LV-HF (−0.6 kg). In another recent study, Colquhoun et al. ( 15 ) investigated the effects of training frequency (3×/week versus 6×/week) using a volume-matched design in well-trained subjects undergoing a powerlifting program. Both groups gained a significant amount of FFM (3×/week: 1.7 kg, 6×/week: 2.6 kg) and although they both lost FM (−0.3 and −0.1 kg, respectively), these reductions were not statistically significant.

Collectively, these studies indicate that body recomposition can occur in trained individuals using a variety of RT programs that are geared to develop muscular strength and hypertrophy. In addition, adjusting nutritional intake is common in individuals attempting to maximize RT gains in strength and hypertrophy ( 54 ). In the next section, we will discuss RT studies that either monitored, controlled, or manipulated the subjects' nutritional approach.

NUTRITIONAL INFLUENCE ON BODY RECOMPOSITION WHEN COUPLED WITH RESISTANCE TRAINING

The combination of RT and specific nutritional strategies can significantly impact training performance ( 52 ), recovery ( 7 ), and body composition ( 14,28,61 ). Generally, caloric deficits are prescribed for individuals seeking to lose FM and caloric surpluses are recommended for those seeking to maximize muscle mass accrual ( 23,54,61,73 ). Although this is common practice, there is evidence that challenges this approach and suggests there may be alternative strategies to improve body composition ( 3,4,40,42 ). For instance, there are data showing significant gains in FFM and reductions in FM while in a caloric surplus ( 21 ). In addition, significant body recomposition has been demonstrated in hypocaloric studies ( 40,42 ). Recently, Slater et al. ( 61 ) questioned the necessity of a hypercaloric intake to maximize skeletal muscle hypertrophy in conjunction with RT. The mechanisms that may explain the body recomposition phenomena are not well understood. For example, the precise energy cost of skeletal muscle growth is not fully known. In addition, we are unsure how the magnitude of energy supply, specifically endogenous sources (i.e., internal fat stores/body fat levels) and exogenous fuel (i.e., diet), pertain to this process ( 61 ). With that said, body composition changes seem to be more complex than energy balance alone because research has shown that different nutritional strategies (i.e., high-protein diets, hypocaloric diets, etc.) may elicit body recomposition ( 13,21,40 ).

In fact, RT studies have demonstrated body recomposition in which nutrition was controlled and/or manipulated. More specifically, some of these studies increased the participant's caloric intake, primarily from dietary protein ( 3,13,21 ). For example, Antonio et al. ( 3 ) investigated the effects of a very high-protein diet (HP 3.4 g/kg) compared to a “normal protein” diet (NP 2.3 g/kg) on body composition in well-trained men and women in conjunction with heavy RT. The participants underwent an RT program (upper-lower split) 5 days per week for 8 weeks and both groups gained a significant, yet equal amount of FFM (1.5 kg). Interestingly, the HP group, which was consuming an additional ∼495 calories per day, lost significantly more FM than the NP group (−1.6 versus −0.3 kg). The authors highlighted the large interindividual variability, which is important for practitioners to be aware of. For instance, in both groups, some subjects gained up to 7 kg of FFM while losing 4 kg of FM concomitantly. However, some subjects actually lost FFM and gained FM. Their data suggest that ∼70% of subjects improve their overall body composition when implementing high-protein diets.

Body recomposition effects of a larger magnitude that reached statistical significance were observed by Haun et al. ( 21 ) in their extreme-volume RT study that investigated the effects of graded whey protein (WP) supplementation in well-trained males. Subjects underwent full-body RT sessions 3 times per week, and volume was progressed from 10 weekly sets per exercise to 32 sets over the 6-week intervention. Participants were randomized into 3 groups: maltodextrin group (MALTO) consuming 30 g per day, WP group receiving 25 g per day, and graded WP (GWP) group receiving an additional 25 g WP each week during the 6-week study (25–150 g WP/day). Furthermore, all groups were instructed by a registered dietician to consume specific macronutrients guidelines equating to a ∼500 calorie surplus. All groups demonstrated a significant increase in FFM from pre to post (MALTO: 2.35 kg, WP: 1.22 kg, GWP: 2.93 kg). However, only the WP and GWP groups displayed a significant reduction in FM simultaneously (−0.65 and −1.0 kg, respectively). Although the WP and GWP groups were using different postworkout nutrition interventions, when looking at their daily protein intake, no significant differences were observed (2.3 versus 2.2 g/kg, respectively). Notably, although the MALTO group was not receiving WP supplementation, their relative daily protein intake (2.3 g/kg) was not different compared to the WP and GWP groups. These results may suggest potential benefits of specific nutrient timing (i.e., postworkout) versus total daily intakes in highly trained individuals performing extreme volume progressions. However, nutrient timing and its effects on body recomposition in trained populations warrant further investigations.

Additional evidence from Campbell et al. ( 13 ) reported similar positive effects on body composition when aspiring female physique athletes increased their total calorie intake (∼250 kcal) from dietary protein alone. These subjects were split into 2 groups, low protein (LP 0.9 g/kg) and high protein (HP 2.5 g/kg), while undergoing an upper-lower RT split, 4×/week. The HP group demonstrated a significant body recomposition effect, gaining 2.1 kg FFM and losing −1.1 kg of FM despite consuming an additional 423 kcals daily. However, the LP group only gained a statistically significant, yet relatively small amount of FFM (0.6 kg) and did not demonstrate significant reductions in FM (−0.8 kg). When evaluating the individual data from this study, all subjects in the HP group gained FFM, whereas some subjects (3 of 9) in the LP group actually lost FFM. These data further support the importance of dietary protein intake for those undergoing RT and trying to improve body composition. However, body recomposition effects of even larger magnitudes have been reported with a moderate protein intake and a more balanced nutritional approach ( 52 ). The variability between studies makes it difficult for researchers, coaches, and practitioners to make evidence-based suggestions as we continue to investigate which approach is the most advantageous for trained individuals.

In another study, Rauch et al. ( 50 ) reported significant body recomposition in female collegiate volleyball players undergoing 7 weeks of power-oriented, full-body RT with similar relative lower-body strength. All dietary information was recorded and analyzed to quantify total and relative (i.e., g/kg) calories and macronutrient intake. Moreover, all participants consumed 25 grams of WP immediately after each exercise session, consumed the same relative quantity of protein per day (1.6 g/kg), and consumed a similar caloric intake throughout the study. Participants were assigned to either an optimal training load (OTL) where participants worked at velocities that maximized power output, or a progressive velocity-based training (PVBT) group, where participants worked at slower velocities (geared at strength), the first training block, and then progressed to OTL velocities, the last training block. The investigators reported that the OTL group increased 2.7 kg of lean body mass and lost 2.7 kg of FM, whereas the PVBT group gained 2.7 kg of lean body mass and lost 2.1 kg of FM. These substantial recomposition findings may have been amplified due to multiple factors. For example, the starting body fat percentage in these volleyball players was higher compared to the leaner, aspiring female physique competitors in the aforementioned study (∼29 versus ∼22%). This may have influenced the greater reductions in FM and gains in lean body mass. In addition, these athletes received nutritional guidance from a sports nutritionist/registered dietician. Finally, this investigation was conducted during their conditioning phase (i.e., off-season) after a detraining period.

Taken together, these reports document the process of body recomposition with moderate to high dietary protein intakes coupled with progressive RT across a wide spectrum of trained populations. Moreover, having higher levels of body fat may affect the magnitude of body recomposition because these fat stores may provide endogenous energy to support muscle mass accrual ( 61 ). However, the impact of initial body fat levels, training status, RT programs, and nutritional intake on body recomposition are not yet fully elucidated and warrants further investigation.

NONTRAINING/NUTRITION-RELATED FACTORS THAT MAY INFLUENCE BODY RECOMPOSITION

Although it is not fully understood, additional factors such as sleep (i.e., quality and quantity), stress hormones (e.g., cortisol), androgenic hormones (e.g., testosterone), and metabolic rate may influence changes in body composition ( 38,46,53,71 ). Unfortunately, many training and nutrition studies do not take into account these important covariates. However, when examining the body of literature that has investigated the effects of these factors on body composition, it is clear they can impact how each individual is responding to the interventions.

For example, Wang et al. ( 71 ) examined the effects of sleep restriction (∼1 hour reduction, 5×/week) on weight loss outcomes in overweight adults in a hypocaloric environment. They demonstrated that both groups in an equated caloric deficit lost a similar amount of total body weight (−3.2 kg). However, when analyzing the percentage of FFM within total mass lost, the sleep-restricted group lost significantly more FFM than they did FM (84.8 versus 16.9%), respectively. However, their counterparts who were not sleep-restricted better preserved FFM and lost a significant amount of FM (17.3 versus 80.7%) of the total mass lost, respectively. It is important to note that these subjects were not undergoing RT. They also observed that the sleep-restricted group had a significant increase in ghrelin ( 71 ). Ghrelin is commonly referred to as the “hunger hormone” and has been shown to increase the likelihood of weight regain (specifically fat) and is one component (of many) why some individuals fail to maintain their weight loss ( 65,69 ).

Additional data investigating sleep deprivation have demonstrated negative effects on multiple athletic performance variables and recovery capabilities ( 17,41,53 ). For example, Reilly and Piercy ( 53 ) observed significant reductions in strength-endurance performance and total volume load on compound exercises such as the bench press, deadlift, and leg press when subjects were in a sleep-restricted state. Furthermore, they reported that the subject's rating of perceived exertion was significantly greater when performing the same RT task in a sleep-deprived state. These negative effects are important to note because training volume is a critical variable for muscle hypertrophy ( 59 ).

Sleep deprivation is also associated with negative hormonal adaptations through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis—leading to an increase in cortisol, glucose, and insulin, and a decrease in testosterone, adiponectin, and growth hormone ( 27,37,38 ). This dysregulation seems to create an “anti” body recomposition environment, where building muscle mass and losing FM would be less likely. More specifically, in athletic populations, hypocaloric intakes and significant reductions in body weight and FM have been shown to negatively impact testosterone ( 48,64,69 ). For example, Bhasin et al. ( 10 ) have demonstrated that there is a direct relationship between serum testosterone levels and gains in FFM. This may partially explain why the case studies in natural bodybuilders have demonstrated a loss in FFM while preparing for their competition despite their RT and high protein intake. More recently, a study also demonstrated that sleep restriction had a detrimental acute effect on myofibrillar protein synthesis rates, which may be associated with loss of muscle mass negatively impacting body composition. This study also reported that protein synthesis rates can be maintained by performing high-intensity exercise even under the sleep-restriction scenario ( 58 ).

Although studies have focused on describing the negative effects of sleep restriction on several different parameters including body composition, there is a paucity of data on how improving sleep quality would specifically impact body composition. To date, only one study investigated the effects of a sleep intervention combined with chronic RT on body composition. Jabekk et al. ( 29 ), designed a very practical study in which 23 untrained individuals were analyzed after undergoing a sleep education intervention on how to improve both sleep quantity and quality (ExS group) compared to exercise only (Ex group). Both groups performed a full-body workout routine for 10 weeks, and body composition was assessed using DEXA. After 10 weeks, both groups similarly increased FFM (ExS: 1.7 kg and Ex: 1.3 kg). However, only ExS significantly reduced FM, whereas Ex did not (ExS: −1.8 and Ex 0.8 kg). Interestingly, sleep questionnaire scores were not different from pretesting to posttesting between groups.

Although the last study suggests that optimizing sleep may potentiate body recomposition in people RT, it was conducted in untrained individuals. Thus, the impact sleep quality and quantity may have on body recomposition in trained individuals needs to be determined. In addition, when investigating many of the previous studies referenced in this review, these nontraining/nutrition factors were not monitored or controlled in trained populations. Therefore, one may argue they may have impacted the results of the studies and partially explain differences in the body recomposition outcomes between subjects and groups. However, more research is required to better understand if these negative outcomes in body composition can be prevented or minimized when trained participants have adequate sleep and a more favorable hormonal profile.

Despite the common belief that building muscle and losing fat at the same time is only plausible in novice/obese individuals, the literature provided supports that trained individuals can also experience body recomposition. Individuals' training status, the exercise interventions, and their baseline body composition can influence the magnitude of muscle gained and fat lost. Resistance training coupled with dietary strategies has been shown to augment this phenomenon. In addition, there seems to be confounding nontraining/nutrition variables such as sleep, hormones, and metabolism that can significantly influence these adaptations. Thus, coaches and practitioners must self-audit their current approach, determine how they can improve their training and nutritional regimen on an individual basis, and implement evidence-based strategies to optimize body recomposition.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

• Implement a progressive RT regimen with a minimum of 3 sessions per week.
• Tracking rate of progress, and paying attention to performance and recovery can be important tools to appropriately adjust training over time.
• Consuming 2.6–3.5 g/kg of FFM may increase the likelihood or magnitude of recomposition ( 3,25,28,61 ).
• Protein supplements (i.e., whey and casein) may be used as a means to increase daily dietary protein intake as well as a tool to maximize muscle protein synthesis. This may be of greater importance postworkout as a means to maximize the recomposition effect ( 21 ).
• Prioritizing sleep quality and quantity may be an additional variable that can significantly impact changes in performance, recovery, and body composition ( 41,46,53,71 ).

Acknowledgment

The authors thank Competitive Breed LLC & SchoolOfGainz.com for paying the open access fee.

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• © 2023 by Jennifer Janechek - IBM Quantum

Review APA guidelines for the body of an APA-style paper.

Beginning at the top of a new page, the main body of the research paper follows the abstract and precedes the References page. Comprised of the introduction, method, results, and discussion subsections, the main body acts as the third major section of the document and typically begins on the third page of the paper.

General Format

Like the rest of the paper, the pages of the main body should be double-spaced and typed in Times New Roman, 12 pt. The margins are set at 1” on all sides. While the running head is flush with the upper left-hand corner of every page, the page number is flush with the upper right-hand corner of every page. Note that all letters of the running head should be capitalized and should not exceed 50 characters, including punctuation, letters, and spaces.

The full title of the paper is centered directly above the introduction with no extra space between the title and the first paragraph. Avoid formatting the title with bold, italics, underlining, or quotation marks. The first letter of each major word in the title should be capitalized. Unlike other sections of the main body, the introduction does not require a heading or label.

When writing each paragraph, note that the APA recommends using two spaces after sentences that end in a period; however, sentences that end in other punctuation marks may be followed by a single space.

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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

Level of Information	Text Example
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
Level 5

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Level of Information	Text Example
Level 1
Level 1
Level 1
Level 1

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

How to Write a Research Paper: Parts of the Paper

• Choosing Your Topic
• Citation & Style Guides This link opens in a new window
• Critical Thinking
• Evaluating Information
• Parts of the Paper
• Writing Tips from UNC-Chapel Hill
• Librarian Contact

Parts of the Research Paper Papers should have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Your introductory paragraph should grab the reader's attention, state your main idea, and indicate how you will support it. The body of the paper should expand on what you have stated in the introduction. Finally, the conclusion restates the paper's thesis and should explain what you have learned, giving a wrap up of your main ideas.

1. The Title The title should be specific and indicate the theme of the research and what ideas it addresses. Use keywords that help explain your paper's topic to the reader. Try to avoid abbreviations and jargon. Think about keywords that people would use to search for your paper and include them in your title.

2. The Abstract The abstract is used by readers to get a quick overview of your paper. Typically, they are about 200 words in length (120 words minimum to  250 words maximum). The abstract should introduce the topic and thesis, and should provide a general statement about what you have found in your research. The abstract allows you to mention each major aspect of your topic and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Because it is a summary of the entire research paper, it is often written last. 

3. The Introduction The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and explain the focus of the research. You will introduce your overview of the topic,  your main points of information, and why this subject is important. You can introduce the current understanding and background information about the topic. Toward the end of the introduction, you add your thesis statement, and explain how you will provide information to support your research questions. This provides the purpose and focus for the rest of the paper.

4. Thesis Statement Most papers will have a thesis statement or main idea and supporting facts/ideas/arguments. State your main idea (something of interest or something to be proven or argued for or against) as your thesis statement, and then provide your supporting facts and arguments. A thesis statement is a declarative sentence that asserts the position a paper will be taking. It also points toward the paper's development. This statement should be both specific and arguable. Generally, the thesis statement will be placed at the end of the first paragraph of your paper. The remainder of your paper will support this thesis.

Students often learn to write a thesis as a first step in the writing process, but often, after research, a writer's viewpoint may change. Therefore a thesis statement may be one of the final steps in writing. 

Examples of Thesis Statements from Purdue OWL

5. The Literature Review The purpose of the literature review is to describe past important research and how it specifically relates to the research thesis. It should be a synthesis of the previous literature and the new idea being researched. The review should examine the major theories related to the topic to date and their contributors. It should include all relevant findings from credible sources, such as academic books and peer-reviewed journal articles. You will want  to:

• Explain how the literature helps the researcher understand the topic.
• Try to show connections and any disparities between the literature.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.

More about writing a literature review. . .

6. The Discussion ​The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe what you have learned from your research. Make the reader understand why your topic is important. The discussion should always demonstrate what you have learned from your readings (and viewings) and how that learning has made the topic evolve, especially from the short description of main points in the introduction.Explain any new understanding or insights you have had after reading your articles and/or books. Paragraphs should use transitioning sentences to develop how one paragraph idea leads to the next. The discussion will always connect to the introduction, your thesis statement, and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction. You want to: 

• Demonstrate critical thinking, not just reporting back facts that you gathered.
• If possible, tell how the topic has evolved over the past and give it's implications for the future.
• Fully explain your main ideas with supporting information.
• Explain why your thesis is correct giving arguments to counter points.

7. The Conclusion A concluding paragraph is a brief summary of your main ideas and restates the paper's main thesis, giving the reader the sense that the stated goal of the paper has been accomplished. What have you learned by doing this research that you didn't know before? What conclusions have you drawn? You may also want to suggest further areas of study, improvement of research possibilities, etc. to demonstrate your critical thinking regarding your research.

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Writing the Body Of the Paper

Ask these questions:

What is it?

It is putting all of your research together in a format that you can present to people.

There are many different ways to put together and present your thesis statement and supporting evidence.

Once you have an '); Activate();" onmouseout="deActivate()">outline that you like, you will be able to link your ideas and evidence either with sentences and paragraphs, visuals, sounds, movements, or a combination of any of these.

This tip sheet will focus on the written research paper, which is the format most commonly required.

If you have some flexibility in how you present your project, see Alternative Formats for the Presentation of Research Projects.

How do I begin to write the body of a research paper?

• You will continue in this manner until you reach the conclusion section of your outline.

:

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• Research paper

How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example

Published on August 7, 2022 by Courtney Gahan . Revised on August 15, 2023.

A research paper outline is a useful tool to aid in the writing process , providing a structure to follow with all information to be included in the paper clearly organized.

A quality outline can make writing your research paper more efficient by helping to:

• Organize your thoughts
• Understand the flow of information and how ideas are related
• Ensure nothing is forgotten

A research paper outline can also give your teacher an early idea of the final product.

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Table of contents

Research paper outline example, how to write a research paper outline, formatting your research paper outline, language in research paper outlines.

• Definition of measles
• Rise in cases in recent years in places the disease was previously eliminated or had very low rates of infection
• Figures: Number of cases per year on average, number in recent years. Relate to immunization
• Symptoms and timeframes of disease
• Risk of fatality, including statistics
• How measles is spread
• Immunization procedures in different regions
• Different regions, focusing on the arguments from those against immunization
• Immunization figures in affected regions
• High number of cases in non-immunizing regions
• Illnesses that can result from measles virus
• Fatal cases of other illnesses after patient contracted measles
• Summary of arguments of different groups
• Summary of figures and relationship with recent immunization debate
• Which side of the argument appears to be correct?

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The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
• Incorrect usage of “et al.”
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Follow these steps to start your research paper outline:

• Decide on the subject of the paper
• Write down all the ideas you want to include or discuss
• Organize related ideas into sub-groups
• Arrange your ideas into a hierarchy: What should the reader learn first? What is most important? Which idea will help end your paper most effectively?
• Create headings and subheadings that are effective
• Format the outline in either alphanumeric, full-sentence or decimal format

There are three different kinds of research paper outline: alphanumeric, full-sentence and decimal outlines. The differences relate to formatting and style of writing.

• Alphanumeric
• Full-sentence

An alphanumeric outline is most commonly used. It uses Roman numerals, capitalized letters, arabic numerals, lowercase letters to organize the flow of information. Text is written with short notes rather than full sentences.

• Sub-point of sub-point 1

Essentially the same as the alphanumeric outline, but with the text written in full sentences rather than short points.

• Additional sub-point to conclude discussion of point of evidence introduced in point A

A decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline, but with a different numbering system: 1, 1.1, 1.2, etc. Text is written as short notes rather than full sentences.

• 1.1.1 Sub-point of first point
• 1.1.2 Sub-point of first point
• 1.2 Second point

To write an effective research paper outline, it is important to pay attention to language. This is especially important if it is one you will show to your teacher or be assessed on.

There are four main considerations: parallelism, coordination, subordination and division.

Parallelism: Be consistent with grammatical form

Parallel structure or parallelism is the repetition of a particular grammatical form within a sentence, or in this case, between points and sub-points. This simply means that if the first point is a verb , the sub-point should also be a verb.

Example of parallelism:

• Include different regions, focusing on the different arguments from those against immunization

Coordination: Be aware of each point’s weight

Your chosen subheadings should hold the same significance as each other, as should all first sub-points, secondary sub-points, and so on.

Example of coordination:

• Include immunization figures in affected regions
• Illnesses that can result from the measles virus

Subordination: Work from general to specific

Subordination refers to the separation of general points from specific. Your main headings should be quite general, and each level of sub-point should become more specific.

Example of subordination:

Division: break information into sub-points.

Your headings should be divided into two or more subsections. There is no limit to how many subsections you can include under each heading, but keep in mind that the information will be structured into a paragraph during the writing stage, so you should not go overboard with the number of sub-points.

Ready to start writing or looking for guidance on a different step in the process? Read our step-by-step guide on how to write a research paper .

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Scientists discover a cause of lupus and a possible way to reverse it, two cellular defects appear to drive disease in lupus.

Northwestern Medicine and Brigham and Women’s Hospital scientists have discovered a molecular defect that promotes the pathologic immune response in systemic lupus erythematosus (known as lupus) and in a study published in Nature , show that reversing this defect may potentially reverse the disease.

Lupus affects more than 1.5 million people in the U.S. Until this new study, the causes of this disease were unclear. Lupus can result in life-threatening damage to multiple organs including the kidneys, brain and heart. Existing treatments often fail to control the disease, the study authors said, and have unintended side effects of reducing the immune system’s ability to fight infections.

“Up until this point, all therapy for lupus is a blunt instrument. It’s broad immunosuppression,” said co-corresponding author Jaehyuk Choi, MD, PhD , the Jack W. Graffin Professor, an associate professor of Dermatology and a Northwestern Medicine dermatologist. “By identifying a cause for this disease, we have found a potential cure that will not have the side effects of current therapies.”

“We’ve identified a fundamental imbalance in the immune responses that patients with lupus make, and we’ve defined specific mediators that can correct this imbalance to dampen the pathologic autoimmune response,” said co-corresponding author Deepak Rao, MD, PhD, an assistant professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School and a rheumatologist at Brigham and Women’s Hospital and co-director of its Center for Cellular Profiling. 

In the study, the scientists reported a new pathway that drives disease in lupus. There are disease-associated changes in multiple molecules in the blood of patients with lupus. Ultimately, these changes lead to insufficient activation of a pathway controlled by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), which regulates cells’ response to environmental pollutants, bacteria or metabolites. Insufficient activation of AHR results in too many disease-promoting immune cells, called the T peripheral helper cells, that promote the production of disease-causing autoantibodies.

To show this discovery can be leveraged for treatments, the investigators returned the aryl hydrocarbon receptor-activating molecules to blood samples from lupus patients. This seemed to reprogram these lupus-causing cells into a cell called a Th22 cell that may promote wound healing from the damage caused by this autoimmune disease.

“We found that if we either activate the AHR pathway with small molecule activators or limit the pathologically excessive interferon in the blood, we can reduce the number of these disease-causing cells,” said Choi, who is also a member of the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center . “If these effects are durable, this may be a potential cure.”

Choi, Rao and colleagues next want to expand their efforts into developing novel treatments for lupus patients. They are now working to find ways to deliver these molecules safely and effectively to people.

Other Northwestern authors are first author Calvin Law; Arundhati Pillai; Brandon Hancock; and Judd Hultquist, PhD , assistant professor of Medicine in the Division of Infectious Diseases . Brigham and Women’s Hospital authors include Vanessa Sue Wacleche, PhD; Ye Cao, PhD; John Sowerby, PhD; Alice Horisberger, MD; Sabrina Bracero; Ifeoluwakiisi Adejoorin; Eilish Dillon; Daimon Simmons, MD; Elena Massarotti, MD; Karen Costenbader, MD, MPH; Michael Brenner, PhD; and James Lederer, PhD.

The research was supported by the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases grants K08 AR072791, P30 AR070253, R01 AR078769 and P30 AR075049; National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases grants R01 AI176599, P30 AI117943, R01 AI165236 and U54 AI170792; National Cancer Institute grants F31 CA268839 and CA060553, all of the National Institutes of Health (NIH); and NIH Director’s New Innovator Grant 1DP2AI136599-01, and grants from Lupus Research Alliance, Burroughs Wellcome Fund, Bakewell Foundation, Leukemia and Lymphoma Society and American Cancer Society.

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Summer research program trains future clinician-scientists, northwestern receives grant to implement secure firearm storage program for illinois parents, study finds noncoding rnas dysregulated in several human cancers.

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The Largest T. Rex Was Probably Much Bigger Than We Ever Realized

If you select a random person out of a crowd, odds are they won't be the tallest human that ever lived. So why should we expect the same for dinosaurs ?

Of all the Tyrannosaurus rex fossils we've found, it's statistically unlikely that any of them are the largest of their species to have lived. It's even difficult to gauge where they sit on the T. rex height chart.

A new study estimates that, statistically, the largest T. rex could have been 70 percent more massive than the largest specimen we have on record. That's a whopping weight of around 15,000 kg (30,000 pounds), compared to our largest fossil T. rex, Scotty , who is estimated to have tipped the scales at 8,800 kg when he died.

Paleobiologist Jordan Mallon from the Canadian Museum of Nature and paleontologist David Hone from Queen Mary University of London interrogate the issue that many life scientists face when trying to estimate the size range of a species based on a small sample of data.

As the team writes , "unless population sampling is both intensive and spatiotemporally exhaustive, it can be difficult to establish the upper limits of body size even for extant species."

Approximately 2.5 billion T. rexes are thought to have graced our planet in the species' short 2.4 million years, and yet so far we have only 84 reasonably complete skeletons to go off.

"Some isolated bones and pieces certainly hint at still larger individuals than for which we currently have skeletons," says Hone.

To fill in the gaps, Mallon and Hone generated 140 million virtual T. rex characters using a computer model that assigns body mass to each individual based on all the variables they could muster, including population size, growth rate, lifespan, and gaps in the fossil record.

This allowed them to estimate where the known fossil specimens would have stood on school photo day, if dinosaurs had those.

They found that we've likely already sampled a T. rex that is larger than 99 percent of all others that lived on Earth. The jury is still out on just how steep the curve is in that final 1 percent.

T. rex was chosen because it's a well-known species, for which many of those variables have been well-estimated.

But we don't know much about the king lizard's body size variation at adulthood, so the researchers turned to one of the dinosaur 's closest living relatives, the American alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis ), as a reference point to account for the sizes of different sexes.

This may not be an ideal approximation. While that's the model in which a dinosaur 70 percent larger than Scotty outshines him, the authors note that the 15,000 kg maximum body mass estimate is more of a statistical fancy than a size we can be sure any T. rex actually reached.

Further research into the sexual dimorphism of T. rex and the biomechanical and ecological constraints on their body size may offer a clearer picture.

When it comes to the largest dinosaur contest, Mallon and Hone's research reminds us of the importance of comparing stats rather than skeletons.

"It's important to stress that this isn't really about T. rex , which is the basis of our study, but this issue would apply to all dinosaurs, and lots of other fossil species," says Hone.

"Arguing about 'which is the biggest?' based on a handful of skeletons really isn't very meaningful."

This research is published in Ecology and Evolution .

SLC25A26-mediated SAM compartmentalization coordinates translation and bioenergetics during cardiac hypertrophy

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• ORCID record for Shuiyun Wang
• ORCID record for Li Wang
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• For correspondence: [email protected]
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BACKGROUND: The heart undergoes hypertrophy as a compensatory mechanism to cope with increased hemodynamic stress, and it can transition into a primary driver of heart failure. Pathological cardiac hypertrophy is characterized by excess protein synthesis. Protein translation is an energy-intensive process that necessitates an inherent mechanism to flexibly fine-tune intracellular bioenergetics according to the translation status; however, such a molecular link remains lacking. METHODS: Slc25a26 knockout and cardiac-specific conditional knockout mouse models were generated to explore its function in vivo. Reconstructed adeno-associated virus was used to overexpress Slc25a26 in vivo. Cardiac hypertrophy was established by transaortic constriction (TAC) surgery. Neonatal rat ventricular myocytes were isolated and cultured to evaluate the role of SLC25A26 in cardiomyocyte growth and mitochondrial biology in vitro. RNA sequencing was conducted to explore the regulatory mechanism by SLC25A26. m1A-modified tRNAs were profiled by RNA immuno-precipitation sequencing. Label-free proteomics was performed to profile the nascent peptides affected by S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). RESULTS: We show that cardiomyocytes are among the top cell types expressing the SAM transporter SLC25A26, which maintains low-level cytoplasmic SAM in the heart. SAM biosynthesis is activated during cardiac hypertrophy, and feedforwardly mobilizes the mitochondrial translocation of SLC25A26 to shuttle excessive SAM into mitochondria. Systemic deletion of Slc25a26 causes embryonic lethality. Cardiac-specific deletion of Slc25a26 causes spontaneous heart failure and exacerbates cardiac hypertrophy induced by transaortic constriction. SLC25A26 overexpression, both before or after TAC surgery, rescues the hypertrophic pathologies and protects from heart failure. Mechanistically, SLC25A26 maintains low-level cytoplasmic SAM to restrict tRNA m1A modifications, particularly at A58 and A75, therefore decelerating translation initiation and modulating tRNA usage. Simultaneously, SLC25A26-mediated SAM accumulation in mitochondria maintains mitochondrial fitness for optimal energy production. CONCLUSIONS: These findings reveal a previously unrecognized role of SLC25A26-mediated SAM compartmentalization in synchronizing translation and bioenergetics. Targeting intracellular SAM distribution would be a promising therapeutic strategy to treat cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by grants from National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFA1104500 to LW and ZW), National Natural Science Foundation of China (82370392, 82070231 and 81722007 to ZW), CAMS Innovation Fund for Medical Sciences (2023-I2M-1-003 and 2022-I2M-2-001 to LW and ZW), Non-profit Central Research Institute Fund of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (2019PT320026 to LW and ZW), National High Level Hospital Clinical Research Funding (2022-GSP-GG-7 to LW and ZW), Shenzhen Medical Research Fund (B2302026 to ZW), Shenzhen Fundamental Research Program (ZDSYS20200923172000001 to ZW), and Science, Technology and Innovation Commission of Shenzhen Municipality (RCJC20210706091947009 to ZW; RCBS20221008093333076 to NG).

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

Collection and usage of human samples were approved by the Ethics Committee of the Fuwai Hospital Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Shenzhen [SP2023133(01)].

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

RNA-seq data have been deposited in NCBIs Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) repository (accession: GSE254565 and GSE173737). Online microarray datasets are available from NCBIs GEO repository with corresponding accession codes as described in details in Supplemental Methods. Any additional information reported in this paper is available from the lead contact upon request.

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News | Update: Oriel’s Liam Corrigan wins gold in rowing at Paris 2024 Olympic Games

Update: Oriel’s Liam Corrigan wins gold in rowing at Paris 2024 Olympic Games

Three Oriel athletes are medal contenders at the Paris 2024 Olympics.

Update: Thursday 1 August, 11.32am. Edited: Thursday 1 August, 13.24pm.

Congratulations to Oriel’s Financial Economics alumnus Liam Corrigan (2021), who has just won gold for the USA in the men’s coxless four final at the Paris 2024 Olympic Games.

Update: Thursday 1 August, 8.26am .

Three athletes from Oriel College are currently competing at the Paris 2024 Olympics.

They are alumnus Liam Corrigan, current student Charlie Elwes and incoming graduate Tom Mackintosh.

Corrigan, rowing for the USA’s men’s coxless four, will compete in the final on Thursday, 1 August, at 11:10 BST.

Mackintosh will participate in the men’s single sculls final on Saturday, 3 August, at 9:30 BST. Previously, he won gold as part of New Zealand’s men’s eight in Tokyo.

Elwes, aiming for his second Olympic medal, will row in Team GB’s men’s eight final on Saturday, 3 August, at 10:10 BST.

Stay tuned for further updates.

John Donne’s personal copy of law book rediscovered in Senior Library

British composer elected visiting fellow in music at oriel college, oriel fellows’ spin-out oxford semantic technologies acquired by samsung electronics.

Metasurface loaded dual band antenna for high gain on- and off- body communication

• Ali, Esraa Mousa
• Islam, Tanvir
• Awan, Wahaj Abbas
• Alzaidi, Mohammed S.
• Alkanhel, Reem
• Elkamchouchi, Dalia H.

Metasurfaces are specially made materials designed to have unique properties not found in nature. They are categorized into different types, such as artificial magnetic conductor (AMC), partial reflecting surfaces (PRS), and frequency selective surfaces (FSS). Among these, FSS is commonly used in today's technology to improve antenna performance, especially in boosting signal strength by blocking unwanted radiation. Recent research is focused on creating FSS-based antennas for Ultra-wideband (UWB) or single band applications, with a significant emphasis on enhancing signal strength. Unlike traditional methods, this study concentrates on designing antennas that are both simple in shape and offers broader frequency coverage, specifically for 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz applications. To enhance antenna performance, a dual-band FSS is employed, optimizing the system for improved operation at both resonating frequencies. This results in a high-gain antenna system, which is further investigated for body area network (BAN) systems, considering the crucial performance metric of specific absorption rate (SAR). The findings are compared with recently reported FSS-based antennas to underscore their scientific contribution and potential for high gain, low SAR applications within the 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz frequency bands.

• body area network;
• dual-band antenna;
• frequency selective surface;