froude experiment

A hydraulic jump is a sudden dissipation of energy caused by a change from super-critical to sub-critical flow. The concept is very similar to sudden expansion in pipe flow, except that hydraulic jumps occur in open-channel flow. At the start of the jump, the flow height will begin to increase, and the velocity will slow creating an area of turbulence. At the end of the jump, the flow height will level off again, and the fluid will continue flowing smoothly.

Before further discussion of hydraulic jumps, it is necessary to define sub-critical and super-critical flow. Fluid flowing in an open channel must have some minimum amount of energy, E min . E min = 1.5 y c , where y c is defined as the critical depth. The stream velocity at y c is defined as V c or critical velocity. A large flow height with V < V c is called sub-critical flow. In sub-critical flow, waves can travel upstream since the wave speed is greater than the free stream velocity. Super-critical flow is defined as a small small flow height causing V > V c (by conservation of mass). Waves always travel downstream in super-critical flow as the free stream velocity is greater than the wave speed.

Hydraulic jumps dissipate a large amount of energy in open channel flows. This makes hydraulic jumps very useful in dam and spillway designs. Many times assistance is needed to make jumps occur at desired locations near spillways. Increasing surface roughness, adding a baffle wall, or sloping the basin floor can all help force a hydraulic jump. The major factor behind a hydraulic jump is the Froude Number, Fr. The best design range for the Froude number is 4.5 to 9.0. In this range, a well-balanced steady jump will occur with a large amount of energy dissipation. A Froude number of 2.5 to 4.5 is the worst design range, as the jump in this range will create large waves that could cause structural damage.

The performance of a hydraulic jump depends mainly on the value of the Froude number. The Froude number is defined as

where V 1 is the stream velocity before the jump, y 1 is the flow height before the jump, and g is the universal gravitational constant.

The two parameters that can easily be varied to change the Froude number are the stream velocity and the flow height. In this experiment, the velocity is varied by varying the speed of the pump. The height of the flow is varied usingf a sluice gate (a baffle with some space underneath that allows the flow to travel through at the set height).

• The bump was constructed from 6" section of 3" diameter PVC pipe. The pipe was cut in half producing a three dimensional semi - circle. Two holes were drilled through the pipe - section. Two threaded metal rods were put through the holes and fastened with nuts. The metal rods were bent at an angle of 90o and attached to the sluice gate apparatus. Holes were drilled into the Plexiglas cover plate at a distance of 5 cm increments such that the bump will be directly under the sluice gate initially.
• The Plexiglas cover plate containing the sluice gate was inserted into position on the top of the water channel with an initial gate height of 2.5 cm from the bottom of the water channel.
• The water channel was filled half way with water.
• The Toshiba Frequency Controller was turned on.
• The speed of the pump was increased using the Toshiba Frequency Controller until a hydraulic jump was formed.
• The height of the water before and after the gate was measured.
• The distance from the gate to the hydraulic jump was measured.
• The laser velocimeter was used to calculate velocity before the hydraulic jump.
• A photograph was taken of the hydraulic jump using the digital camera.
• The pump was turned off.
• The bump was inserted into the water channel at various distances in accordance to the holes drilled in the cover plate. The steps 4 to 10 were repeated at each distance from the sluice gate.
• Steps 4 to 11 were repeated at several sluice gate heights (increments of 1 cm) and increased pump speeds.

Chanson, H. Hydraulic Design of Stepped Cascades, Channels, Weirs, and Spillways . Pergamon, 1994.

Vischer, Daniel L. and Hager, Willi H. ed. Energy Dissipators . A. A. Balkema / Rotterdam / Brookfield, 1995.

White, Frank M. Fluid Mechanics 4th ed . McGraw-Hill, 1999

• Calculate the Froude number for each configuration.
• Plot the Froude number and bump distance at each velocity
• Report the results and discuss.

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• Froude Number

What is Froude Number?

In the dimension analysis, the dimensionless quantity is the quantity that does not have physical dimensions. These dimensionless quantities are defined as the product or ratio of the quantities with dimensions. For example, strain is the measure of deformation, in other words, it can be written as the ratio of change in length over the initial length. Since the unit is ‘L’ in both cases thus a strain is dimensionless. 

The dimensionless numbers are used to analyze the prototype models. These numbers are Reynolds numbers, Weber’s number, and Froude’s number. In situations where the gravitational force is important, the Froude number governs dynamic similarity. Some of the examples include, flow through the open channels, flow over the spillway of the dam, etc. 

Froude Number Formula

Froude number is represented by Fr, in fluid mechanics, and in hydrology, Fr is a dimensionless quantity that is used in the indication of the influence of gravity on the motion of fluids. It is expressed as,

Froude No = \[\frac{v}{\sqrt{gd}}\]

Here, ‘d’ represents the depth of flow, 

‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity,

‘v’ is the celerity or gravity of the small surface wave . 

When Froude No. is at a critical point that is Fr = 1, then the velocity of the flow is equal to the velocity of surface waves, which is also known as the Critical flow Froude number. 

If the Fr is less than one, then this means that the small surface waves can move in an upstream direction or it is considered as fluvial motion. 

If Fr is greater than one, then this means that the small surface waves can move in the downstream direction or it is considered as torrential flow motion. The Froude number enters into the hydraulic jump that occurs in certain conditions and along with the Reynolds number. 

Froude Definition

Froude’s number is named after the scientist William Froude. It depends on the speed-length ratio. It has some analogy with the Mach number. In the case of theoretical fluid dynamics, it is not considered frequently because usually the equations are considered in the high Froude limit in the case of the negligible external field. 

In naval architecture, the Froude number is the significant figure that is used in the determination of the resistance of the partially submerged object that is moving through the water. In the open channel flows, the ratio of the flow velocity to the square root of the product of acceleration due to gravity to the depth of the flow. 

William Froude used a series of scale models to measure the resistance of each module when it is towed at the given speed. This concept was first introduced by Frederic Reech and is used for testing ships and propellers. But the speed-length ratio was originally derived by Fraude in his Law of Comparison. Where the dimensional terms consist of 

Speed - length ratio = \[\frac{u}{\sqrt{LWL}}\]

Where u is the flow speed and LWL indicates the length of the waterline. It is converted into a non-dimensional term. It is also known as the Reech–Froude number in the region of France.

Froude Number Applications

1. Cauchy Momentum Equation: The characteristic length r0 and characteristic velocity u0 are to be defined to make the equations dimensionless. The dimensionless variables should be of one order. 

ρ* ≡ \[\frac{\rho }{\rho _0}\], u* ≡ \[\frac{u}{u_0}\], r* ≡ \[\frac{r}{r_0}\], t* ≡ \[\frac{u_0}{r_0}\]t, g* ≡ \[\frac{g}{g_0}\], σ* ≡ \[\frac{\sigma }{\sigma _0}\] 

If we substitute these inverse relations in the Euler momentum equations we get,

Froude No = \[\frac{u_0}{\sqrt{g_0r_0}}\]

Thus Cauchy momentum equation is,

\[\frac{Du}{Dt}\] + Eu\[\frac{1}{\rho }\] ▽ . σ = \[\frac{1}{Fr^2}\]g 

In the high Froude limit, the Cauchy type of equations is known as free equations, where Fr → ∞ and in the lower Euler limit, where Eu → 0, the Cauchy momentum equation becomes in the homogeneous equation called the Burgers equation.

\[\frac{\partial u}{\partial t}\] + ▽ . (\[\frac{1}{2}\]u ⊗ u) = \[\frac{1}{Fr^2}\]g

2. Euler Momentum Equation: It is a Cauchy momentum equation along with the Pascal law with the relation of stress constitutive.

3. Incompressible Navier–Stokes Momentum Equation: It is a Cauchy momentum equation along with the Pascal law and Stoke’s law with the relation of stress constitutive.

4. Ship Hydrodynamics: In the applications of marine hydrodynamics, Froude number is usually referred to as Fn, 

Fn L = \[\frac{u}{\sqrt{gL}}\]

Here, u is considered as the relative flow velocity in between the sea and ship, g is the acceleration due to gravity and L is the length of the ship at the level of the waterline, it is also denoted as Lwl. It is the important parameter that is calculated for the resistance or ship drag in respect to the wave-making resistance.

In the planning crafts, while the waterline length is too speed-dependent, the Froude number can be defined as displacement Froude number, and thus the reference length is taken from the volumetric displacement of the hull, it is represented as:

Fn V = \[\frac{u}{\sqrt{g^3}\sqrt{v}}\]

5. Shallow Water Waves: The shallow waterways such as hydraulic jumps and tsunamis, U is considered as the average flow velocity, where this U is averaged to the cross-section that is perpendicular to the flow direction. Thus the wave velocity c is defined as:

c = \[\sqrt{g\frac{A}{B}}\], hence the Froude number in the shallow water will be, 

Fr = \[\frac{u}{\sqrt{g\frac{A}{B}}}\]

For the uniform depth and rectangular cross-section, the Froude number is given as,

Fr = \[\frac{u}{\sqrt{gd}}\]

If Fr ≈ 1 then the flow is critical, 

If the Fr < 1 then the flow is Subcritical, 

If the Fr > 1 then the flow is Supercritical. 

6. Wind Engineering: In dynamically sensitive structures, considering the wind effects is necessary for the simulation of the combined effect of the vibrating mass along with the fluctuating force of the wind. When simulating the hot smoke plumes when combined with the natural wind, the scaling of the Froude number is necessary for the maintenance of the correct balance between the buoyancy forces and the momentum of the wind. 

Hydraulic Jump

In the science of hydraulics, the hydraulic jump is the phenomenon that is frequently observed in the case of open channel flows that include rivers and spillways. When the liquid is at a high velocity and if it discharges to the zone of lower velocity then the rise occurs in the region of the liquid surface. This rapidly flowing water abruptly slows down and increases its height, thus converting some of the flow from kinetic energy to potential energy during this conversion some of the energy is lost in the form of heat of turbulence. 

This phenomenon is dependent on the initial speed of the fluid, if the initial speed is said to be lower than that of the critical speed then there is no jump observed in the liquid, thus in such cases, the transition appears as an undulating wave. The hydraulic jump is seen in both dynamic form and stationary form. The stationary form is known as a hydraulic jump, and in the dynamic form, it is known as positive surge or hydraulic jump of translation. 

The final equation in the representation of the hydraulic jump consists of Froude No, it is also known as Belanger equation, it is represented as,

\[\frac{h_1}{h_2}=\frac{\sqrt{1+8Fr^2}-1}{2}\]

If the Fr value is greater than one, then the initial flow represents the supercritical flow, and if the Fr is less than one, then it represents the subcritical flow. 

The dam should be designed in such a way that the energy of the fast-flowing stream of the spillway should be dissipated partially to avoid the erosion of the streambed downstream of the spillway at the end this leads to failure of the dam. An apron is designed to withstand the hydraulic forces and prevent the local cavitation to avoid erosion. Thus to design these the engineers select a point where the hydraulic jump will occur. To trigger the hydraulic jump, the apron is designed in such a way that the flat slope of this retards the flow of the water from the spillway. There are two methods to induce the jump:

If the downstream channel restricts the downstream flow, then the water backs up onto the foot of the spillway, thus the downstream water level is used to determine the location of the hydraulic jump.

At some distance, the spillway continues to drop the flow, but this flow will be changed to prevent the support of the supercritical flow since the depth of the lower subcritical flow region is required to identify the location of the jump. 

In both of these cases, the final depth of the water can be determined by downstream characteristics, 

\[h_0=\frac{h_1}{2}(-1+\sqrt{1+8Fr_2^2}\]

Where Fr represents the upstream Froude number, g is the acceleration due to gravity, h is the height of the fluid.

Based on the Froude number hydraulic jump is classified as:

If the Fr is in between 1.0 to 1.7, then it is known as undular jump.

If the Fr is between 1.7 to 2.5, then it is known as a weak jump.

If the Fr is in between 2.5 to 4.5 it is known as an oscillating jump.

If the Fr is in between 4.5 to 9.0 then it is known as a steady jump.

Froude's model law :

A model's Froude number should be the same as a prototype's Froude number. It is used in situations where gravity is simply acting as an overriding force to govern flow as well as inertia force.

Uses of Froude Number :

Following are some of the uses of Froude Number:

It is significant in fluid dynamics problems when the fluid's weight is a substantial force.

It is taken into account while examining flow in spillways, channel flows, weirs, rivers, and ship design.

It is useful for calculating hydraulic jumps and building hydraulic structures when gravity and inertial forces are in control.

Bedforms' characteristics shall be determined

It is used to overcome the resistance of an object moving through water.

Fr. compares the resistance caused by a wave among bodies of various shapes and sizes.

It is useful in low-water waves, wind engineering, and ship hydrodynamics.

In between the bodies of various sizes and shapes, the Froude number is used to determine wave-making resistance. In the case of free surface flow, the nature of the flow is determined by the value of the Froude number that is greater than or less than the unity. The line of critical flow is usually in the kitchen or bathroom sinks. 

When we keep it unplugged and allow the faucet to run, the place where the stream hits the sink, that flow is considered as the supercritical flow. The stream hugs the surface and moves very quickly. The outer edge of the flow pattern is subcritical, the boundary between these two areas is known as the hydraulic jump. This jump starts only when the Froude number is 1.

FAQs on Froude Number

1. After whom is Froude’s number named?

The number is named after the scientist William Froude. William Froude measured the resistance of each module while it was towed at the specified speed using a series of scale models. This concept was developed by Frederic Reech and is used to test ships and propellers. The speed-length ratio, on the other hand, was discovered by Fraude in his Law of Comparison. It is determined by the speed-length ratio. It bears some resemblance to the Mach number. It is not typically studied in theoretical fluid dynamics since the equations are normally considered at the high Froude limit in the event of a negligible external field.

2. What is a hydraulic jump?

The hydraulic jump is a behavior that is commonly observed in open channel flows such as rivers and spillways in the study of hydraulics. The rise happens at the liquid surface when the liquid is at a high velocity and discharges to a zone of lower velocity. This fast-moving water suddenly pauses and rises, transforming some of the flow from kinetic to potential energy. Some of the energy is wasted in the form of heat of turbulence during this conversion.

3. What are the manifestations of hydraulic jump?

Hydraulic jumps have two basic manifestations, and formerly, separate terminology has been used for each. The mechanisms underlying them, however, are identical since they are merely variations of each other observed from various frames of reference, and so the physics and analysis tools can be applied to both types.

The many manifestations are as follows:

The stationary hydraulic jump — swiftly flowing water transitions to slowly moving water in a stationary jump.

The tidal bore - a wall or undulating wave of water pushes upstream against water flowing downstream. When a frame of reference moves with the wavefront, the wavefront becomes stationary relative to the frame and shows the same key behaviour as the stationary leap.

4. Mention the Types of Jump Depending on the Froude Number.

Fr is in between 1.0 to 1.7, then it is an undular jump.

Fr is between 1.7 to 2.5, then it is a weak jump.

Fr is in between 2.5 to 4.5 it is an oscillating jump.

Fr is in between 4.5 to 9.0 then it is a steady jump.

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Numerical analysis of flow characteristics and energy dissipation on flat and pooled stepped spillways.

1. Introduction

2. material and methods, 2.1. physical model, 2.2. numerical simulation, 2.2.1. turbulence model, 2.2.2. realizable k-ε model, 2.3. computational setup, 2.3.1. boundary conditions, 2.3.2. gird and mesh assessment, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. validation of numerical model, 3.2. flow behavior and water surface profiles, 3.3. water surface profile for geometry case 1, 3.4. water surface profile for geometry case 2, 3.5. water surface profile for geometry case 3, 3.6. water surface profile for geometry case 4, 3.7. velocity and pressure distribution, 4. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Farooq, U.; Li, S.; Yang, J. Numerical Analysis of Flow Characteristics and Energy Dissipation on Flat and Pooled Stepped Spillways. Water 2024 , 16 , 2600. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182600

Farooq U, Li S, Yang J. Numerical Analysis of Flow Characteristics and Energy Dissipation on Flat and Pooled Stepped Spillways. Water . 2024; 16(18):2600. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182600

Farooq, Umar, Shicheng Li, and James Yang. 2024. "Numerical Analysis of Flow Characteristics and Energy Dissipation on Flat and Pooled Stepped Spillways" Water 16, no. 18: 2600. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16182600

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Existence and Stability of Nonmonotone Hydraulic Shocks for the Saint Venant Equations of Inclined Thin-Film Flow

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• Published: 13 September 2024
• Volume 248 , article number  82 , ( 2024 )

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• Grégory Faye   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7390-4295 1 ,
• L. Miguel Rodrigues 2 ,
• Zhao Yang 3 &
• Kevin Zumbrun 4  

Extending the work of Yang–Zumbrun for the hydrodynamically stable case of Froude number \(F<2\) , we categorize completely the existence and convective stability of hydraulic shock profiles of the Saint Venant equations of inclined thin film flow. Moreover, we confirm by numerical experiment that asymptotic dynamics for general Riemann data is given in the hydrodynamic instability regime by either stable hydraulic shock waves, or a pattern consisting of an invading roll wave front separated by a finite terminating Lax shock from a constant state at plus infinity. Notably, profiles, and existence and stability diagrams, are all rigorously obtained by mathematical analysis and explicit calculation.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

In [ 37 , 39 ] there was carried out a comprehensive study of existence and nonlinear stability of hydraulic shock profiles for the Saint Venant equations (SV) of inclined thin film flow, under the assumption of hydrodynamic stability (or stability of constant solutions) of their endstates, a necessary condition for stability of shock profiles in standard Sobolev norms. It was shown under this condition that all profiles are monotone decreasing and nonlinearly stable . Notably, this conclusion includes both smooth and discontinuous (“subshock” containing) profiles.

In this paper, motivated by studies [ 30 , 31 ] of the closely related Richard–Gavrilyuk model (RG) for inclined thin film flow, in which nonmonotone profiles, and profiles with hydrodynamically unstable endstates, play a prominent role in asymptotic behavior, we revisit this problem in more detail, seeking nonmonotone profiles in the hydrodynamically unstable case. These of course cannot be stable in standard Sobolev norms, but as seen in [ 30 ], they can nonetheless be convectively stable , or stable in an appropriately exponentially-weighted norm, hence relevant to time-asymptotic behavior. Interestingly, we do find such waves, in a case that was neglected Footnote 1 in [ 39 ], and they appear to be convectively stable over a certain, computable regime.

The above observations have motivated the development of convective counterparts [ 15 , 16 ] to general results converting spectral stability into linear and nonlinear stability results [ 11 , 14 ]. Specializing [ 15 ] to the present case, we are able to supplement our complete spectral classification with corresponding nonlinear stability results.

The inviscid Saint-Venant equations in Eulerian, nondimensionalized form appear as

where h is fluid height; \(q=hu\) is total flow, with u fluid velocity; and \(F>0\) is the Froude number , a nondimensional parameter depending on reference height/velocity and inclination.

These form a \(2\times 2\) relaxation system , with associated formal equilibrium equation

where \(q_*\) is determined by the equilibrium condition that the second component of the right-hand side of ( 1.1 ) vanish. The first-order, principal part of ( 1.1 ), meanwhile, coincides with the equations of isentropic \(\gamma \) - law gas dynamics with \(\gamma =2\) [ 8 ]. System ( 1.1 ) admits constant solutions in the form of equilibria \((h,q)=(h_0,q_*(h_0))\) . Stability of constant solutions, known as hydrodynamic stability , is equivalent for \(2\times 2\) relaxation systems to the subcharacteristic condition that the equilibrium characteristic \(q_*'(h_0)\) of ( 1.2 ) lies between the characteristic speeds of ( 1.1 ), yielding the classical condition of Jeffreys [ 20 ],

Note the very special property that the condition does not depend on the particular value of \(h_0\) . For further discussion, see [ 21 , 39 ] on ( 1.1 ) and [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 32 ] on its viscous counterpart.

In the hydrodynamically stable regime \(F<2\) , one does expect persistent asymptotically-constant traveling wave solutions

analogous to shock waves of ( 1.2 ), known as relaxation shocks , or relaxation profiles, as verified in [ 39 ]. However, the hydrodynamically unstable regime \(F>2\) is also of interest, in both the convectively stable regime, since this is compatible with the description of large-time dynamics arising from compactly supported perturbations of Riemann data, and, in any case, as a scenario for complex behavior and pattern formation [ 4 , 30 ], with profiles ( 1.4 ) serving as potential building blocks for more complicated patterns. Here, we carry out an exhaustive study of existence and convective stability of hydraulic (SV) shocks for general F , including both cases \(F\gtrless 2\) .

1.1 Results

We now briefly state our main results, to be expanded in the remainder of the paper.

1.1.1 Existence

(Section  2 ) Expanding on the results of [ 39 ] for \(F<2\) , we categorize in Proposition 2.1 all possible types of possible hydraulic shocks: namely, the three monotone types (i), (iv), and (v) noted in [ 39 ], together with two new nonmonotone types (ii) and (iii) arising for \(F>2\) . These are displayed graphically in the left and right panels of Fig.  2 , the left one organized by the parameter \(H_R/H_L\) used in [ 39 ] and the right one by a new, more convenient parameter \(\nu _0:=\sqrt{H_{max}/H_{min}}\) in which the figures are more clear. Here \(H_L\) and \(H_R\) refer to the left and right limiting heights of the traveling wave, and \(H_{max}\) and \(H_{min}\) to the maximum and minimum heights. We note that type (ii)–(v) waves connect equilibria \((H_L,H_R)\) corresponding to shocks of the scalar equilibrium system ( 1.2 ), whereas type (i) waves are smooth, monotone increasing in height, and connect \((H_L,H_R)\) in the direction of a “reverse shock” of ( 1.2 ). The former, “forward-equilibrium shocks” exist precisely for

1.1.2 Spectral Stability

(Sections  3 and 4 ) In Sect.  3 , we investigate stability of essential spectra in the class of scalar weighted norms, or, equivalently here, stability of absolute spectra. We show that this fails for type (i) waves, corresponding to “reverse” equilibrium shocks, but is satisfied for type (ii)–(v) waves under condition

(always satisfied for cases (iii)–(v)) slightly stronger than the existence condition ( 1.5 ). Indeed, as noted in Remark 3.4 , essential stability fails for type (i) waves and for type (ii) waves failing to satisfy ( 1.6 ) in any type of weighted norm, yielding a conclusive result of convective instability for these types. We specifically refer to Sect.  3.5 for a complete summary of the results, which are also displayed graphically in the panels of Fig.  3 .

In Sect.  4 , we study stability of point spectrum for the remaining cases (ii), ( 1.6 ) and (iii)–(v), extending the generalized Sturm-Liouville argument introduced in [ 37 , 39 ] for the treatment of cases (iv)–(v). Remarkably, we are able to rigorously verify stability of point spectrum whenever the essential stability condition ( 1.6 ) is satisfied. Taken together, these results completely characterize spectral stability of hydraulic shocks of all types (see Proposition  4.3 ).

1.1.3 Linear and Nonlinear Stability

(Section  5 ) In Sect.  5 , we investigate for spectrally stable waves the questions of linear and nonlinear stability, providing a result of convective asymptotic time-exponential orbital stability, or convergence to a translate of the original traveling wave. This implies in particular, time-exponential stability under localized (e.g., Gaussian- or compact-support) perturbations, a result that is new even for the \(F<2\) case considered in [ 39 ]. We have chosen here to derive these results by specializing to ( 1.1 ) the general theory from [ 15 ]. Despite the fact that analyzing directly ( 1.1 ) would come with significant simplifications due to the special structure of systems of two equations compared to general systems, a detailed analysis would still be rather technical and long, without conveying much specific insight about the dynamics at hand. We stress moreover that, though the results of [ 39 ] do not apply to the present case, their proof does contain all the main ingredients to yield the nonlinear stability of interest. Again, though a simpler form of the arguments of [ 39 ] would be sufficient here, since time-exponential decay is simpler to handle than time-algebraic decay, a self-contained exposition of such an adaptation would still be rather long and technical.

1.1.4 Global Time-Asymptotic Dynamics

(Section  6 ) Finally, in Sect.  6 , we carry out using CLAWPACK [ 9 , 25 ] numerical experiments with (perturbed and unperturbed) “Riemann” or “dambreak” data consisting of constant equilibrium states to either side of an initial jump discontinuity, testing the “real life” validity of our rigorous existence/stability conclusions, in the sense of large-amplitude perturbations and resulting time-asymptotic behavior, or “generalized Riemann solution”. We see that our analytically derived stability conditions indeed predict not only small-perturbation stability or instability, but large-scale asymptotic behavior. Specifically, when stability holds, the asymptotic response to even large-scale localized perturbations is convergence to a hydraulic shock, monotone or nonmonotone as the case may be.

When stability fails, on the other hand—recall, through instability of essential spectrum , having to do with convective stability of the constant left endstate of the shock—we see bifurcation to an “invading front” connecting roll wave patterns on the left to a constant state on the right: that is, an “essential bifurcation” such has been studied for smooth waves of reaction-diffusion systems in [ 34 ]. Thus, our (local) stability conditions indeed successfully predict large-scale asymptotic behavior. Interestingly enough, in all our experiments the expanding speed of the instability pattern is well-predicted by the heuristics of [ 13 ].

1.2 Discussion and Open Problems

The Saint Venant model has proven remarkably amenable to analysis, admitting complete solutions to both existence and stability questions now in a variety of settings. The present analysis fits among this list, giving complete and definitive answers to the questions of existence and convective stability of hydraulic shock solutions. In particular, the fact that absolute and point spectral stability could be completely characterized is quite remarkable and apparently special to (SV). It is a very interesting open problem to what extent the Sturm-Liouville arguments used here might extend to large-amplitude traveling waves of general \(2\times 2\) relaxation systems under a condition of convectively stable essential spectrum, generalizing the treatment by Liu [ 24 ] of small-amplitude waves in the hydrodynamically stable case.

The analyses of linear and nonlinear stability in [ 39 ] also rely in places on specific computations for (SV). However, different from the situation as regards spectral stability, the strategies for converting spectral to nonlinear stability are rather general, and could be expected under appropriate structural conditions to carry over to the general case of relaxation models. These considerations motivate a more general and systematic study of such problems, as done by the first two authors for exponentially spectrally stable Riemann shocks [ 14 ], and will be the object of a future publication [ 15 ] from which we already borrow some results.

Jointly with [ 21 , 37 , 39 ], the present contribution provides for (SV) an almost complete classification of traveling waves from the point of view of existence and spectral stability. Nevertheless we would like to point out that even in (SV), at the spectral level, a stability classification of waves that have characteristic points but are not periodic is still missing. Likewise one of the outstanding remaining puzzles in the nonlinear stability of relaxation waves, either smooth or discontinuous, is the treatment of waves with characteristic points, generalizing to the system case the scalar analysis of [ 12 ]. At the nonlinear level, the corresponding difficulties are expected to occur also in the analysis of the dynamics near roll waves, which has not been touched even for (SV); see for example the discussions of [ 21 ]. Indeed, there are some additional difficulties for (SV) due to an infinite-dimensional center manifold coming from degeneracy of the model [ 21 ]. We find this to be the main open problem in the theory of general (including periodic) traveling waves.

Finally, we mention as an interesting direction for further investigation, the rigorous treatment of the phenomenon of essential bifurcation/invading roll wave fronts that we see in our numerical experiments, the lack of smoothness and parabolic smoothing making this a nonstandard problem not covered by the methods of [ 34 ] and related references.

2 Existence of Traveling Waves

In this section, we recover the basic existence theory from [ 39 , Prop. 1.1], in the process unraveling the nonmonotone case omitted there. We focus on traveling waves with piecewise smooth profiles without characteristic point, neither on profiles nor at infinity. The presence of characteristic points is expected to have dramatic effects on the existence, spectral stability and nonlinear dynamics; see the related analyses in [ 12 , 21 ]. We also restrict to waves with nonnegative velocities so that absolute values may be dropped, but one may be careful to check as a consistency condition that indeed \(Q\ge 0\) .

To expect some form of uniqueness when dealing with discontinuous solutions we need to impose some form of entropy conditions. Combined with the non-characteristic assumption, even the weaker forms of the latter imply that the traveling wave profiles exhibit at most one discontinuity. We again refer to [ 12 , 21 ] for a detailed discussion. Without loss of generality, by translational invariance, the discontinuity of wave profiles may be fixed at \(x=0\) . When restricting further to asymptotically constant profiles, they also yield that limiting endstates are distinct.

Here and elsewhere, let \([h]_x:=h(x^+)-h(x^-)\) of a quantity h across a discontinuity located at x , and \([h]:=[h]_0\) . In smooth regions, traveling-wave solutions ( 1.4 ) satisfy

whereas at discontinuities, we have the Rankine–Hugoniot conditions

A simple observation is that the end states \((H_R,Q_R)\) and \((H_L,Q_L)\) of the traveling wave profiles ( 1.4 ) must be equilibria, that is \(Q_{L,R}=q_*(H_{L,R})=H_{L,R}^{3/2}\) (since we are working in the physical range \(H>0\) ). Combined together the first halves of ( 2.1 ) and ( 2.2 ) are equivalent to the existence of a constant \(q_0\) such that

With such a \(q_0\) fixed, the second equation of ( 2.1 ) leads to the scalar ODE

while the second Rankine–Hugoniot condition in ( 2.2 ) reads

Equation ( 2.4 ) is a scalar first-order ODE, so that it cannot connect smoothly an endstate to itself (in a non stationary way). We have already discussed that when instead a discontinuity is indeed present, we must have \((H_R,Q_R)\ne (H_L,Q_L)\) so that in any case \(H_L\ne H_R\) . Therefore from ( 2.3 ) stems that \((H_L,H_R, c,q_0)\) must satisfy

and necessarily \(c>0\) , \(q_0>0\) . Note that then the condition \(Q\ge 0\) becomes \(H\ge q_0/c\) with

Moreover, from the sign of \(q_0\) and entropy conditions stem, when a discontinuity is present,

which is equivalently written as

The scalar ODE ( 2.4 ) may be factorized as

Note that in any case \(H_{out}<q_0/c<\min (\{H_L,H_R\})\) and recall that solutions to ( 2.6 ) taking values below \(q_0/c\) have no significance for the original traveling wave profile problem. Therefore for the discontinuous profiles, one needs \(H_{out}<H_R<H_s<H_L\) and a simple one-dimensional phase-portrait analysis shows that the piece converging to \(H_R\) must be constant. As a consequence, in terms of \(H_*=H(0^-)\) , ( 2.5 ) is reduced to

which possesses a unique positive solution distinct from \(H_R\)

Note that \(H_s>H_R\) implies \(H_*>H_R\) .

For the sake of comparison with [ 39 ], let us introduce the scaling parameter

and express the above quantities as

We have the following extension/correction of [ 39 , Prop. 1.1] cases (ii) and (iii) were mistakenly omitted there:

Proposition 2.1

Let \((H_L,H_R)\) be a couple of positive heights.

When \(H_L<H_R\) , that is when \(\nu <1\) , there exists only one kind of non-characteristic wave profiles connecting \(H_L\) to \(H_R\) ,

increasing smooth profiles , that do exist if and only if \(H_L<H_R<H_s\) , that is, if and only if

When \(H_R<H_L\) , that is when \(\nu >1\) , there exist four kinds of non-characteristic waves connecting \(H_L\) to \(H_R\) ,

nonmonotone discontinuous profiles , consisting of a smooth portion increasing from \(H_L\) to \(H_*\) , connected by an entropy-admissible Lax shock to a portion constant equal to \(H_R\) , that do exist if and only if \(H_R<H_s<H_L<H_*\) , that is, if and only if

Riemann profiles , consisting of a portion equal to \(H_L\) , connected by an entropy-admissible Lax shock to a portion constant equal to \(H_R\) , that do exist if and only if \(H_R<H_s<H_*=H_L\) , that is, if and only if

decreasing discontinuous profiles , consisting of a smooth portion decreasing from \(H_L\) to \(H_*\) , connected by an entropy-admissible Lax shock to a portion constant equal to \(H_R\) , that do exist if and only if \(H_R<H_s<H_*<H_L\) , that is, if and only if

smooth decreasing profiles , that do exist if and only if \(H_s<H_R<H_L\) , that is, if and only if

Simple one-dimensional phase-portrait considerations provide the classification in terms of respective positions of \(H_L\) , \(H_R\) , \(H_s\) and \(H_*\) , that may be readily translated as conditions on \(\nu \) and F . It only remains to point out that, in case (ii), we have used that, when \(\nu >1\) ,

to discard as redundant one of the inequalities. Incidentally we also point out that when \(\nu >1\)

so that case (ii) is indeed non empty. This completes the proof. We refer to Fig. 1 for an illustration of the various hydraulic shock profiles. \(\square \)

Examples of cases (i)–(v) of hydraulic shock profiles prescribed in Proposition  2.1 . (i) an increasing smooth profile with \(H_L=1\) , \(H_R=1.3\) , \(F=3\) ; (ii) a nonmonotone discontinuous profile with \(H_L=1\) , \(H_R=0.4\) , \(F=3\) ; (iii) a Riemann profile with \(H_L=1\) , \(H_R=0.4\) , \(F=\tfrac{\sqrt{7}}{2}+\sqrt{\tfrac{7}{10}}\) ; (iv) a decreasing discontinuous profile with \(H_L=1\) , \(H_R=0.2\) , \(F=1.5\) ; (v) a smooth decreasing profile with \(H_L=1\) , \(H_R=0.8\) , \(F=1.5\)

With hydrodynamical stability in mind, let us compare different \(\nu \) -dependent Froude thresholds to the critical value 2. For any \(\nu <1\) ,

so that case (i) is always hydrodynamically unstable. When \(\nu >1\) ,

the latter inequality following from the fact that its left-hand side is increasing with \(\nu \) and takes the value 2 at \(\nu =1\) . Thus cases (ii) and (iii) are always hydrodynamically unstable, case (v) is always hydrodynamically stable and case (iv) may or may not be hydrodynamically unstable. Case (v), and case (iv) when \(F<2\) have been thoroughly analyzed in [ 37 , 39 ].

In the above discussion, we have decided in advance that we were looking for non-characteristic traveling waves connecting \(H_L\) to \(H_R\) . For the convenience of the reader, we now provide a more systematic treatment of non constant waves in terms of

with \((H_{min},H_{max})\) now merely playing the role of wave parameters (replacing \((c,q_0)\) ).

When \(F>\nu _0(\nu _0+1)\) , only waves of case (i) exist, with \(H_L=H_{min}\) and \(H_R=H_{max}\) .

When \(F=\nu _0(\nu _0+1)\) , \(H_s=H_{max}\) and there exist two families of traveling waves, one family with each member beginning by a smooth infinite portion arising from \(H_L=H_{min}\) , connected by a Lax shock to an infinite array of increasing portions passing though \(H_s\) , connected by Lax shocks, the family being parameterized by an arbitrary sequence of lengths taken in \((0,+\infty )^{{\mathbb {N}}}\) ; the other family with each member consisting in an infinite Footnote 2 array of increasing portions passing though \(H_s\) , connected by Lax shocks, the family being parameterized by an arbitrary sequence of lengths taken in \((0,+\infty )^{{\mathbb {Z}}}\) . The latter family includes periodic “roll wave” solutions of the type discovered by Dressler [ 10 ], that is, periodic traveling-wave solutions with exactly one discontinuity and one characteristic point by period. A comprehensive study of their spectral stability may be found in [ 21 ].

only waves of cases (ii)–(iii) and (iv) exist, with \(H_R=H_{min}\) and \(H_L=H_{max}\) .

there exists no wave.

only waves of case (v) exist, with \(H_R=H_{min}\) and \(H_L=H_{max}\) .

We summarize the existence results in Fig.  2 .

Left panel: domains of cases (i)–(v) from Proposition  2.1 , extending the scope of [ 39 , Fig. 3. (b)] beyond the box \(0<H_R/H_L<1\) , \(0<F<2\) (note that, by re-scaling, \(H_L\) is fixed to be 1 in [ 39 ]); Right panel: visualization of domains of cases (i)–(v) (2) (4) by incorporating \(\nu _0\) from Remark  2.3

3 Spectral Framework and Essential Spectrum

We now turn to an examination of the spectral stability of waves listed in Proposition  2.1 . When doing so, we use extensively standard elements of spectral theory specialized to nonlinear wave stability. We give little detail on those but rather refer the reader to the already classical [ 22 , 26 , 33 , 40 , 41 ] for detailed comprehensive exposition and to the recent [ 7 ] for a self-contained worked-out case that could hopefully be used as a gentle entering gate. For discontinuous waves, this involves, at least implicitly, Evans-Lopatinskiĭ determinants, that interpolate between pure Evans functions used in smooth wave analysis and pure Lopatinskiĭ determinants used to analyze local-in-time persistence near shocks. On the latter we refer for instance to [ 6 , Section 4.6]. Evans-Lopatinskiĭ determinants are commonly encountered in the literature about spectral and linear stability of shocks; see for instance [ 17 , 18 , 21 , 38 ].

3.1 Linearization and Spectrum

To introduce the relevant spectral problem in a concise way, let us write ( 1.1 ) in standard abstract form

System ( 3.1 ) must be satisfied at least in weak sense, thus, for piecewise smooth solutions we impose ( 3.1 ) to hold in a strong sense on domains corresponding to smooth parts and along a jump whose location at time t is at \(\varphi (t)\) we impose Rankine–Hugoniot jump conditions

Pick a non-characteristic traveling wave of profile \(W:=(H,Q)\) and speed c . When W is smooth, writing equations in terms of v , with \(w(t,x)=W(x-ct)+v(t,x-ct)\) , and replacing nonlinear terms with a source term, lead to

where the source term F depends on space and time but the matrix-valued coefficients A and E depend only on x and are explicitly given by

In turn, when W possesses a discontinuity at 0, proceeding in the same way but in terms of \((v,\psi )\) , with \(w(t,x)=W(x-(ct+\psi (t)))+\tilde{w}(t,x-(ct+\psi (t)))\) , \(v=\tilde{w}-\psi \,W'\) , yields

where ( A ,  E ,  F ) are as above, G is a time-dependent source term and \({\mathbb {R}}^*:={\mathbb {R}}\backslash \{0\}\) .

It is customary in smooth wave analysis to directly discard source terms. This is justified by the fact that when considering initial value problems one may recover the general source-term case through Duhamel’s formula. However, for discontinuous waves, the linearized problem is a mixed initial boundary value problem and the arguments fails. The source terms G that may be recovered by the Duhamel formula are those that are pointwise in time colinear with [ W ]. On a directly related note, let us observe that whereas ( 3.3 ) directly fits in standard semigroup theory, ( 3.4 ) does not but it does belong to the class of problems that can be analyzed through the more general, infinite-dimensional Laplace transform theory, as covered in [ 1 ], and we shall extrapolate standard spectral terminology to this case.

Applying the Laplace transform to the above linearized problems yields respectively

with a different meaning for \((v,\psi ,F,G)\) , and \(\lambda \in {\mathbb {C}}\) a spectral parameter. For the sake of concision, let us set

in respective cases.

For some choice of functional spaces ( X ,  Y ), we say that \(\lambda \) does not belong to the ( X ,  Y )-spectrum of either ( 3.3 ) or ( 3.4 ) if and only if \(L_\lambda \) is invertible as a bounded operator from Y to X . In the smooth case, this matches the classical definition of the spectrum of the generator of the dynamics on X , when Y is chosen to be the corresponding domain.

Consistently we say that the wave under consideration is spectrally ( X ,  Y )-stable if the corresponding ( X ,  Y )-spectrum is included in \(\{\lambda \in {\mathbb {C}};\textrm{Re}(\lambda )\le 0\}\) and that it is spectrally ( X ,  Y )-unstable otherwise. We say that it is exponentially spectrally ( X ,  Y )-stable if there exists \(\theta >0\) such that the ( X ,  Y )-spectrum is included in \(\{\lambda \in {\mathbb {C}};\textrm{Re}(\lambda )\le -\theta \}\cup \{0\}\) and 0 has multiplicity 0 if the wave is smooth and \(W'\notin Y\) , 1 otherwise.

When stability/instability is considered with respect to \((X,Y)=(L^2({\mathbb {R}};{\mathbb {C}}^2), H^1({\mathbb {R}};{\mathbb {C}}^2))\) in the smooth case, or \((X,Y)=(L^2({\mathbb {R}}^*;{\mathbb {C}}^2)\times {\mathbb {C}},H^1({\mathbb {R}}^*;{\mathbb {C}}^2)\times {\mathbb {C}})\) in the discontinuous case, we drop any mention to the functional pair ( X ,  Y ). This particular choice of functional spaces takes into account that our profiles are non-characteristic. From this property also stems that the spectrum is not really affected by the level of regularity encoded by functional spaces provided that they are chosen consistently. However it is strongly impacted by the level of localization.

To take this into account, we introduce for \((\eta _L,\eta _R)\in {\mathbb {R}}^2\) the weighted spaces

with \(\mathcal {X}=L^2\) or \(\mathcal {X}=H^1\) . Consistently, when talking about stability, we replace any mention to a pair ( X ,  Y ) with the adverb convectively if it can be achieved respectively with \((X,Y)=(L^2_{\eta _L,\eta _R}({\mathbb {R}};{\mathbb {C}}^2),H^1_{\eta _L,\eta _R}({\mathbb {R}};{\mathbb {C}}^2))\) or \((X,Y)=(L^2_{\eta _L,\eta _R}({\mathbb {R}}^*;{\mathbb {C}}^2)\times {\mathbb {C}},H^1_{\eta _L,\eta _R}({\mathbb {R}}^*;{\mathbb {C}}^2)\times {\mathbb {C}})\) for some \((\eta _L,\eta _R)\) such that \(\eta _L\ge 0\) and \(\eta _R\le 0\) . Correspondingly convective instability refers to the failure of convective stability. When it will be convenient to keep track of the chosen weights we will replace the general term “convectively” with the more specific term “ \((\eta _L,\eta _R)\) -weightedly”.

The constraint ( \(\eta _L\ge 0\) and \(\eta _R\le 0\) ) imposed in the definition of convective stability is motivated by the will to pave the way for nonlinear analysis. At a semi-abstract level, a functional space Z appearing at the spectral level (for scalar components) is thought as a good space for nonlinear analysis if \(Z\cap L^\infty \) is an algebra. This leads to the above requirements on weights. In the discontinuous case, another obstruction to a nonlinear analysis may be anticipated. Indeed in a Duhamel formulation source terms would contain terms that decay spatially like the square of components of \(\psi \,W'\) , which may belong to a \((\eta _L,\eta _R)\) -weighted space only if Footnote 3 \(W'\equiv 0\) or

The situation is dramatically different in the smooth case since there one needs to introduce a phase shift (which would also appear in nonlinear terms) only if \(W'\) does belong to the kernel of \(L_0\) , that is, only if \(\eta _L<\eta _L^\infty \) and \(\eta _R>\eta _R^\infty \) where \(\eta _L^\infty \) is as above and

which do imply \(\eta _L<2\eta _L^\infty \) and \(\eta _R>2\eta _R^\infty \) . In the discontinuous case, a phase shift is required no matter what; in the foregoing derivation of ( 3.4 ) we have partially hidden it when we have moved from \(\tilde{w}\) to v . In our definition, for the sake of simplicity, we have chosen not to include the extra constraint \(\eta _L<2\eta _L^\infty \) of the discontinuous case but as we check in Remark  3.7 it turns out that in the present case extra constraints already enforce \(\eta _L<\eta _L^\infty \) .

Our current definition of convective stability/instability uses scalar exponential weights. Though this choice is the most usual one, it is also somewhat arbitrary. However, as we shall detail in Remark  3.4 , in the present case, no substantial further gain in stabilization may be expected from the use of more complex weights.

3.2 Essential Spectrum, Consistent Splitting and Absolute Instability

A subset of the ( X ,  Y )-spectrum is constituted of the \(\lambda \) such that \(L_\lambda \) is not Fredholm of index 0 as a bounded operator from Y to X . By analogy with the standard case, we call this part the ( X ,  Y )-essential spectrum. The essential spectrum is therefore the set of \(\lambda \) such that the codimension of the range of \(L_\lambda \) and the dimension of its kernel are not equal, a clear obstruction to invertibility, which occurs when both are zero.

By using that being Fredholm of index 0 is invariant by compact perturbations and that the problem at hand is non characteristic with coefficients converging exponentially fast to their limits, one may derive a characterization of the essential spectrum. We do not provide details on the proof of the latter but we refer the reader to the Appendix to [ 19 , Chapter 5] for a worked out version in a closely related context.

To discuss the outcome, we introduce

and recall that

Then \(\lambda \) does not belong to the \((\eta _L,\eta _R)\) -weighted essential spectrum if and only if \(G_{H_L}(\lambda )\) has no eigenvalue with real part \(\eta _L\) , \(G_{H_R}(\lambda )\) has no eigenvalue with real part \(\eta _R\) and the sum of the number of eigenvalues of \(G_{H_L}(\lambda )\) with real part greater than \(\eta _L\) and of the number of eigenvalues of \(G_{H_R}(\lambda )\) with real part lesser than \(\eta _R\) equals 2 in the smooth case, 1 in the discontinuous case.

By continuity in \(\lambda \) , \((\eta _L,\eta _R)\) -weighted stability requires that each of the above-mentioned numbers is constant in \(\lambda \) on \(\{\,\lambda ;\,\textrm{Re}(\lambda )>0\,\}\) , a property referred to as consistent splitting in part of the literature. Now, note that when \(|\lambda |\rightarrow \infty \) , eigenvalues of \(G_h(\lambda )\) expand as

which when specialized to \(h=H_L\) or \(H_R\) is equivalently written as

The leading order part of these spatial eigenvalues is given by the eigenvalues of \(-\lambda \,A_h^{-1}\) and thus is directly connected to the characteristic velocities of \(\partial _t+A_h\,\partial _x\) . As a consequence, for \(h=H_L\) or \(H_R\) , for any \(\eta >0\) there exists \(C_\eta >0\) such that when \(|\lambda |\ge C_\eta \) and \(\textrm{Re}(\lambda )\ge \eta \) , \(G_{H_L}(\lambda )\) has two eigenvalues with positive real parts when \(h<H_s\) and eigenvalues with real parts of opposite sign when \(h>H_s\) .

As a consequence, a specific way in which failure of convective stability (resp. absolute convective instability) may occur in the present case is when for \(h=H_L\) or \(H_R\) such that \(h>H_s\) , there exists \(\lambda \) with positive real part (resp. nonzero with nonnegative real part) such that the eigenvalues of \(G_h(\lambda )\) have the same real part. This scenario matches what is commonly designated in the literature as failure of extended consistent splitting or absolute instability . To decide whether an absolute instability may indeed occur, let us first make explicit that the eigenvalues of \(G_h(\lambda )\) are given as

for some determination of \(\sqrt{{{\mathcal {Q}}}_h(\lambda )}\) . Note that \(\gamma _{\pm ,h}(\lambda )\) share the same real part exactly when \({{\mathcal {Q}}}_h(\lambda )\) is a nonpositive real number. Since

one readily deduces that the latter does occur for some \(\lambda \) with positive real part (resp. nonzero with nonnegative real part) if and only if

In the present case, when convective stability (resp. exponential convective stability) fails in the foregoing way, there also exists a \(\lambda \) with positive real part (resp. nonzero with nonnegative real part) such that \(\gamma _{\pm ,h}(\lambda )\) are equal. At this \(\lambda \) , the resolvent operator cannot be continuously extended even as an operator from the space of test functions to distributions. This shows that, in the present case, such absolute instabilities cannot be cured in any sensible sense, in particular not by replacing exponential weights by a more general class of reasonable weights.

In order to elucidate further a possible absolute instability, we compute that when \(h=H_L\) or \(h=H_R\) ,

Recalling that the scenario also requires \(h>H_s\) and observing that, when \(\nu >1\) ,

one deduces that absolute instability may only occur in case (ii) of Proposition  2.1 and does occur when

3.3 Smooth Fronts

We temporarily restrict the discussion to smooth profiles, that is, to cases (i) and (v) of Proposition  2.1 .

Case (v) has already been studied in [ 37 , Section 3] with conclusion that all profiles of case (v) are spectrally stable but not exponentially spectrally stable. With a few more simple computations one may even check that this spectral stability is of diffusive type in a sense compatible with the application of general results from [ 27 ] and conclude to nonlinear asymptotic stability with algebraic decay rates.

The only question left concerning case (v) is whether convective exponential spectral stability also holds. In this case the only obstacle to exponential spectral stability without weight is the presence of two curves of essential spectrum passing through \(\lambda =0\) tangentially to the imaginary axis, one for each spatial infinity. Recall that since, in case (v), \(H_R>H_s\) and \(H_L>H_s\) , there holds for \(h=H_L\) , \(H_R\) ,

Therefore, to conclude convective exponential spectral stability, one needs only to check that curves of essential spectrum near \(\lambda =0\) are due to changes of sign of \(\textrm{Re}(\gamma _{+,H_L}(\lambda ))\) and \(\textrm{Re}(\gamma _{-,H_R}(\lambda ))\) . Since

one concludes convective exponential spectral stability in case (v) from the fact that when \(\nu >1\)

In turn, in case (i), \(H_R<H_s\) and \(H_L<H_s\) so that for \(h=H_L\) , \(H_R\) ,

Therefore to prove that convective spectral stability fails it is sufficient to prove that a spectral instability is caused by what happens near \(-\infty \) , thus with \(h=H_L\) . This follows from the fact that in case (i), \(F>2\) , and hence both endstates generate an essential spectrum instability.

3.4 Discontinuous Fronts

We now specialize to discontinuous fronts, as in cases (ii), (iii) and (iv) of Proposition   2.1 . Our goal in the present section is to completely elucidate the effect of essential spectrum on stability/instability of any type so as to reduce the issues to the examination of unstable eigenvalues, carried out in the next section.

For all the cases under consideration here, \(H_R<H_s<H_L\) thus

This readily implies that instabilities due to the behavior near \(+\infty \) may always be convectively stabilized whereas the convective stabilization of instabilities due to the behavior near \(-\infty \) require that those occur through a change of sign in \(\textrm{Re}(\gamma _{+,H_L}(\lambda ))\) . Note that at this stage it is not clear whether the latter necessary condition is also sufficient.

In order to decide this necessary condition, we compute that

As a consequence,

In particular, the condition is at least met in the high-frequency regime. Another necessary condition is that \(\textrm{Re}(\lambda )>0\) implies \(\textrm{Re}(\gamma _{+,H_L}(\lambda ))<\textrm{Re}(\gamma _{-,H_L}(\lambda ))\) . We have already examined the latter condition when discussing absolute instability and proved that it fails only in case (ii) when

Moreover when \(F<\sqrt{2\nu (\nu +1)}\) , \(\textrm{Re}(\lambda )\ge 0\) also implies \(\textrm{Re}(\gamma _{+,H_L}(\lambda ))<\textrm{Re}(\gamma _{-,H_L}(\lambda ))\) .

The full condition we want to elucidate is

With explicit expressions ( 3.7 ) in mind, we first recall that

and observe that in present cases, when \(\textrm{Re}(\lambda )\ge 0\) ,

This motivates the following lemma:

For any positive \(\alpha \) , \(\gamma \) ,

From the classical formula \((\textrm{Re}(\sqrt{z}))^2=(\textrm{Re}(z)+|z|)/2\) , we deduce

Direct computations yield that

and that either \(\Gamma '\) is constantly zero, which happens when \(\beta ^2=4\alpha \gamma \) , or that it never vanishes, when \(\beta ^2\ne 4\alpha \gamma \) . Hence the result by monotonicity. \(\square \)

When applying the lemma to an estimate of \(\textrm{Re}({{\mathcal {Q}}}_h(\lambda ))\) , we want to determine what is the minimum obtained from the lemma. This stems from the computation

Note that the latter expression does not depend on \(\lambda \) and that its sign is determined by the sign of \(F-2\) . All together we deduce that, to determine the convective stabilitization of the essential spectrum, when \(F\ge 2\) it is sufficient to discuss what happens at the limit \(\textrm{Im}(\lambda )\rightarrow \infty \) whereas when \(F<2\) it is sufficient to look at the case when \(\lambda \in {\mathbb {R}}\) .

As for the smooth profiles, the case \(F<2\) has been thoroughly analyzed in [ 37 ] and the only thing left is to check that one may also obtain exponential convective stability in this case. This follows from the same computation as for discontinuous profiles.

From now on we focus on discontinuous profiles when \(F\ge 2\) . In this context it follows from the previous lemma and the above \(|\lambda |\rightarrow \infty \) asymptotics that failure of convective stability by essential spectrum is equivalent to

This coincides with the condition for absolute instability

Let us emphasize that the coincidence of the boundary of absolute instability with the boundary of convective stability Footnote 4 defined through scalar exponential weights is not a general fact but a specific property of the present problem. It comes with the strong consequence that there is no need to consider more general weights. One may obtain a simple (but artificial) counterexample to a more general claim in this direction by simply considering as a single system two uncoupled systems requiring incompatible weights.

3.5 Summary

The preceding analysis motivates the definition of the following regions in parameters space. We set

together with

We refer to Fig.  3 for a visualization of these regions in parameters space. So far, our results can be summarized as:

3.6 Maximal Decay Rate: Another View

Before moving on with the rest of the program, we would like to halt and offer a different perspective on the former computations so as to address the following question: what is the maximal essential spectral gap that may be opened by tuning our weights appropriately ? Since the boundaries of the essential spectrum due to what happens near \(+\infty \) may be pushed arbitrarily to the left of the compex plane, we may again focus on the contribution from the left. The same computation we have carried out to determine absolute instability yields as an upper bound for the essential spectral gap

and that it is reached with spatial decay rate

Reciprocally one may check with arguments similar to the ones used above (mostly relying on Lemma  3.5 ) that choosing \(\eta _L=\eta _{opt}\) and \(\eta _R\) sufficiently negative provides the optimal spectral gap.

The effect of moving \(\eta _L\) is illustrated in Fig.  4 . There the curves are obtained by solving in \(\lambda \in {\mathbb {C}}\) the equations

with parameter \(\xi \in {\mathbb {R}}\) as

and we have introduced

To prove the last claim in Remark  3.2 , we observe that

is indeed positive in the cases under consideration. To carry out the above computation, we have used that

Visualization of some of the boundaries of the weighted essential spectrum as \(\eta _L\) is varied. In all figures, the blue curves represent the computed boundaries while the red half-lines represent the absolute spectrum which terminates at branch points marked by black crosses. Without weight, the essential spectrum is always unstable, while it is strictly stabilized with a gap for \(\eta _L\in \left( \eta _L^\textrm{min},\eta _L^\textrm{max}\right) \) . At the critical weights \(\eta _L=\eta _L^\textrm{min}\) or \(\eta _L=\eta _L^\textrm{max}\) , the weighted essential spectrum is only marginally stabilized with no spectral gap. The parameters are fixed to \((H_L,H_R,F)=(1,1/4,3)\) so that \((\eta _L^\textrm{min},\eta _L^\textrm{max})=(3,5)\)

4 Sturm–Liouville Analysis

Throughout this section, we consider a discontinuous profile and assume that F satisfies

We also fix some \(\eta _L\in \left( \eta _L^\textrm{min},\eta _L^\textrm{max}\right) \) where \(\eta _L^\textrm{min}\) and \(\eta _L^\textrm{max}\) are as above.

Here, as announced, we study possible unstable eigenvalues and, to do so, adapt the arguments from [ 37 ].

4.1 The Reduced Eigenvalue Problem

By imposing a vanishing on \({\mathbb {R}}_+\) , as we can for our purposes, we reduce the eigenfuction problem to finding a nonzero \((v,\psi )\) in Footnote 5 \(H^1_{\eta _L}({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}}^2)\times {\mathbb {C}}\) solving

We begin by inspecting the special case when v is zero (but \(\psi \) is not). A direct inspection shows that it only happens when \(\left[ \,\lambda \,W-r(W)\right] \) is zero, which is equivalent to \(\lambda \) and [ r ( W )] both being zero (since the first component of [ r ( W )] is zero and the first of [ W ] is nonzero). The latter occurs exactly when we are in the Riemann shock case, case (iii) of Proposition  2.1 . Actually the vanishing of \(\left[ \,\lambda \,W-r(W)\right] \) when \(\lambda =0\) alters many of the considerations to come. For this reason we postpone the treatment of the Riemann shock case to the end of the present section.

Since we are now excluding the Riemann shock case, \(\left[ \,\lambda \,W-r(W)\right] \) is non zero and one may eliminate \(\psi \) to reduce the discussion further to the existence of a nonzero \(v=(v_1,v_2)\) in \(H^1_{\eta _L}({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}}^2)\) such that on \({\mathbb {R}}_-^*\)

For the sake of writing simplification we introduce one flux coordinate and replace v with \(u=(u_1,u_2):=(v_1,-cv_1+v_2)\) . With this change, we turn the problem into finding a nonzero u in \(H^1_{\eta _L}({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}}^2)\) such that on \({\mathbb {R}}_-^*\)

In the foregoing we have denoted by a the characteristic determinant

Let us now examine the possibility to have a nonzero solution u with zero component \(u_2\) . A direct inspection shows that this may happen only when \(\lambda =0\) and that the corresponding u is necessarily a multiple of \((H',0)\) . Note that reciprocally one checks readily that when \(\lambda =0\) necessarily \(u_2\equiv 0\) . Thus this situation corresponds exactly to the possibility of 0 being in the spectrum due to translational invariance.

We now focus on the case when \(u_2\) is not zero. Then the eigenvalue problem may be recasted into the problem of finding a nonzero \(u_2\) in \(H^2_{\eta _L}({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}})\) solving

on \({\mathbb {R}}_-^*\) and

In order to match notation from [ 37 ] we introduce

so that the equation on \({\mathbb {R}}_-^*\) becomes

We point out for later use that from the fact that \((H',0)\) solves the interior ODE problem for \((u_1,u_2)\) when \(\lambda =0\) , one deduces that \(H''=-f_2\,H'\) .

At last, in order to symmetrize the interior equation, we perform a Liouville-type transformation and replace \(u_2\) with w defined by Footnote 6

This replaces the equation on \({\mathbb {R}}_-^*\) with

also written as

which is exactly [ 37 , Equation (2.14)], whereas the boundary condition becomes

Before going on we need to check that \(u_2\in H^2_{\eta _L}({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}})\) implies \(w\in H^2({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}})\) . From the analysis of the previous section we know that, when \(u_2\in H^2_{\eta _L}({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}})\) , its spatial decay rate is precisely \(\textrm{Re}(\gamma _{-,H_L}(\lambda ))\) . Therefore this amounts to proving that

A direct computation shows that this is equivalent to

thus to the fact that \(\lambda \) does not belong to the absolute spectrum.

Therefore it is indeed sufficient to discard the possibility of a nonzero w in \(H^2({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}})\) solving ( 4.1 )–( 4.2 ).

4.2 Non Real Growth Rates

We stress that whereas the interior part, ( 4.1 ), is symmetric on functions compactly supported in \({\mathbb {R}}_-^*\) , completing it with boundary condition ( 4.2 ) does not yield a symmetric operator. An argument, specialized to the case at hand, is thus needed to show that necessarily \(\lambda \in {\mathbb {R}}\) if such a w exists. We provide such a concrete argument now.

To begin with, we observe that, combined with ( 4.2 ), multiplying ( 4.1 ) with \(\overline{w}\) and integrating yield

When \(\textrm{Im}(\lambda )\ne 0\) , the imaginary part of ( 4.3 ) gives

Since \(c_1<0\) and \(f_3<0\) , the last equality implies

As a consequence, we need to study the sign of \(f_4-\frac{1}{2}f_1f_2-\frac{1}{2}f_1'\) . To determine this sign we observe that

Let us denote \(H_c\) the positive root of \({{\mathcal {Z}}}'\) , that is,

On \([H_c,+\infty )\) , \({{\mathcal {Z}}}\) is increasing.

We directly borrow from [ 37 , Section 4.1] that when \(F>(\nu +1)/\nu ^2\) , one has \(H_*>H_c\) and, when moreover \(H_*\le H_L\) , \({{\mathcal {Z}}}(H_*)>0\) . This directly implies that in cases (iii) and (iv) of Proposition  2.1 , indeed \(\inf _{{\mathbb {R}}_-^*}\left( -f_4+\frac{1}{2}f_1f_2+\frac{1}{2}f_1'\right) >0\) .

To complete the analysis of non real eigenvalues, we only need to show that in case (ii), \(H_L>H_c\) and \({{\mathcal {Z}}}(H_L)>0\) . It is straightforward to check that when \(F\le \sqrt{2\nu (\nu +1)}\) indeed \(H_L>H_c\) , whereas \({{\mathcal {Z}}}(H_L)>0\) is exactly equivalent to \(F< \sqrt{2\nu (\nu +1)}\) .

This achieves the proof that a spectral gap is present for non real eigenvalues.

4.3 Real Growth Rates

We now turn our attention to the case of real eigenvalues. Throughout the present subsection, we assume that \(\lambda \in {\mathbb {R}}_+\) and our goal is again to rule out the possibility of a nonzero w in \(H^2({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}})\) solving ( 4.1 )–( 4.2 ).

Our starting point is again Equation ( 4.3 ), that we write now as

where \({{\mathcal {A}}}_\lambda \) and \({{\mathcal {B}}}\) are the symmetric sesquilinear Footnote 7 forms on \(H^1({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}})\) defined through their quadratic forms

Note that since \(\lambda \in {\mathbb {R}}_+\) , the analysis of the former subsection yields that \({{\mathcal {A}}}_\lambda \) is positive definite when \(F< \sqrt{2\nu (\nu +1)}\) . In order to conclude it is therefore sufficient to prove that \({{\mathcal {B}}}\) is also positive definite, that is,

The equivalence between the two conditions follows from the following Gårding-type inequality: there exist positive c and C such that, for any \(v\in H^1\) , \({{\mathcal {B}}}(v,v)\ge c\Vert v\Vert _{H^1}^2-C\Vert v\Vert _{L^2}^2\) . A refined version of the latter is proved below.

As in [ 37 ], we prove the latter by a continuity/homotopy argument. To set it, we introduce, for \(x_0\in {\mathbb {R}}_-\) , \({{\mathcal {B}}}_{x_0}\) the symmetric sesquilinear form on \(H^1({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}})\) defined through its quadratic form

The explicit definition of \(c_2^{[x_0]}\) is given below but let us already anticipate that our choice ensures that \(c_2^{[x_0]}\) depends smoothly on \(x_0\) and converges as \(x_0\rightarrow -\infty \) to a negative value. Note moreover that

This implies that when \(x_0\) is sufficiently close to \(-\infty \) , \({{\mathcal {B}}}_{x_0}\) is positive definite. To motivate the expression for \(c_2^{[x_0]}\) , we first observe that

then, consistently we set

Note that as announced

The continuity argument is applied to the continuous function

The fact that the foregoing function is indeed defined follows again from the Gårding inequality mentioned above. To complete our study of cases (ii) and (iv), it is sufficient to prove that this function cannot vanish. This follows in a straightforward way from the series of two lemmas stated and proved below.

To prepare the lemmas, we first quantify the possible failure of coercivity. For any

there exist positive \(\eta _\kappa \) , \(c_\kappa \) and \(C_\kappa \) such that for any \(x_0\in {\mathbb {R}}_-\) and \(v\in H^1\) ,

Indeed \(\eta _\kappa \) may be chosen by imposing

and the existence of \(c_\kappa \) and \(C_\kappa \) is a consequence of rough bounds on coefficients and the following Sobolev inequality,

that holds for any \(\eta >0\) (with an implicit constant depending on \(\eta \) ).

As a second and last preliminary to lemmas, we find it convenient to explicitly introduce the self-adjoint operator on \(L^2({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}})\) , \({{\mathcal {L}}}_{x_0}\) , of domain denoted \(D_{x_0}\) , associated with \({{\mathcal {B}}}_{x_0}\) . Explicitly

and for \(v\in D_{x_0}\) ,

then there exists \(v\in D_{x_0}\) , \(v\not \equiv 0\) , such that \({{\mathcal {L}}}_{x_0}v=0\) .

Let us consider \((v_k)_{k\in {{\mathbb {N}}}}\) a minimizing sequence, normalized by \(\Vert v_k\Vert _{L^2}=1\) . From the Gårding estimate, we know that \((v_k)_{k\in {{\mathbb {N}}}}\) is bounded in \(H^1\) and thus, up to extracting a subsequence, we may assume that \((v_k)_{k\in {{\mathbb {N}}}}\) converges weakly in \(H^1\) to some \(v_\infty \in H^1\) . As a direct consequence of the Hahn-Banach theorem, we deduce that

Now pick \(\eta >0\) such that \(f_2^2+2f_2'\) is positive outside \((-\eta ,0)\) and note that since \(H^1((-\eta ,0))\) is compactly embedded in \(L^2((-\eta ,0))\) we may assume that \((v_k)_k\) converges strongly to \(v_{\infty }\) in \(L^2((-\eta ,0))\) . Combined with ( 4.4 ), this is sufficient to take the limit \(k\rightarrow \infty \) in the remaining part of \({{\mathcal {B}}}_{x_0}(v_k,v_k)\) . As a result

We now prove that \(v_\infty \) is nonzero. This is the place where we use the refined version of the Gårding estimate. Indeed it implies that there exist positive \(\eta '\) and K such that when k is sufficiently large so as to force that \({{\mathcal {B}}}_{x_0}(v_k,v_k)\) is sufficiently small

Since \(\Vert v_k\Vert _{L^2}=1\) , we deduce that

Then, since we may assume that \((v_k)_k\) converges strongly to \(v_{\infty }\) in \(L^2((-\eta ',0))\) , we conclude that \(v_\infty \) is nonzero.

Let us set \(v:=v_\infty /\Vert v_\infty \Vert _{L^2}\) . The vector v is nonzero and satisfies \({{\mathcal {B}}}_{x_0}(v,v)\le 0\) , thus \({{\mathcal {B}}}_{x_0}(v,v)=0\) . Since v minimizes the quadratic form associated with \({{\mathcal {B}}}_{x_0}\) among vectors of \(H^1\) with unit \(L^2\) norm, there exists \(\mu \in {\mathbb {C}}\) such that \({{\mathcal {B}}}_{x_0}(v,\cdot )\,=\,\mu \,\langle v,\cdot \rangle _{L^2}\) . In particular \(v\in D_{x_0}\) and \({{\mathcal {L}}}_{x_0}v=\overline{\mu } v\) . Since v is nonzero, evaluating the relation at v shows that \(\mu =0\) and concludes the proof of the lemma. \(\square \)

The foregoing lemma is very close to many standard results but, unfortunately, we have not found a directly applicable version in the literature. Hence the above proof.

If \(v\in D_{x_0}\) is such that \({{\mathcal {L}}}_{x_0}v=0\) then \(v\equiv 0\) .

Note that the set of \(v\in H^2({\mathbb {R}}_-)\) such that

is one-dimensional. Moreover from the fact that \((H',Q')\) solves the interior spectral ODE system in original formulation, we deduce that \((H-H_L)''=-f_2\,(H-H_L)'\) , and thus that

spans the above set.

To conclude we just need to check that \(v^{[x_0]}\notin D_{x_0}\) . This is indeed the case since

\(\square \)

4.4 The Riemann Shock Case

We conclude our stability analysis by discussing how to adapt the above arguments to the Riemann shock case. The overall strategy is identical but details should be changed at various places.

We only indicate these modifications. To begin with, since \([r(W)]=0\) , it is convenient to replace \(\psi \) with \({\widetilde{\psi }}:=\lambda \psi \) . This does not change the nature of the spectral problem when \(\lambda \ne 0\) and simply decreases by 1 the algebraic multiplicity of the eigenvalue \(\lambda =0\) . Our task is thus to determine when there exists a nonzero \((v,{\widetilde{\psi }})\in H^1_{\eta _L}({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}}^2)\times {\mathbb {C}}\) solving

Since [ W ] is non zero, one may eliminate \({\widetilde{\psi }}\) and reduce the discussion to the existence of a nonzero \(u=(u_1,u_2):=(v_1,-cv_1+v_2)\) in \(H^1_{\eta _L}({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}}^2)\) such that on \({\mathbb {R}}_-^*\)

There is no nonzero solution with either \(u_2\) vanishing identically or \(\lambda =0\) , so that the problem is equivalent to finding a nonzero \(u_2\in H^2_{\eta _L}({\mathbb {R}}_-^*;{\mathbb {C}})\) solving on \({\mathbb {R}}_-^*\)

with H and Q constant equal to \(H_L\) and \(H_L^{3/2}\) respectively.

From here no change is needed in the reduction from \(u_2\) to w , nor in Subsection  4.2 . The core of Subsection  4.3 is simply replaced with a direct check that \({{\mathcal {B}}}\) is positive definite. This follows from the fact that \(f_2\) is a negatively-valued constant function and \(c_2\) is also negative since it is equal to one half of this value. The sign observation stems from \(H_L>H_s\) and \(F>2\) which imply

Summarizing the results of the present section with the ones of Sect.  3 , we obtain the following proposition:

Proposition 4.3

5 linear and nonlinear convective stability.

At this point, we have shown that convective spectral stability holds (with scalar weight) for \(F<\sqrt{2\nu (\nu +1)}\) , and fails (for any weight) for \(F>\sqrt{2\nu (\nu +1)}\) , We now complete our discussion of convective stability by invoking a Lyapunov-type argument showing that convective spectral stability implies linear and nonlinear convective orbital stability, at time-exponential rate.

Convective spectral stability in the semilinear parabolic case, with a smooth background traveling wave, yields fairly immediately time-exponential asymptotic orbital stability, by well known arguments of Sattinger [ 35 ] and Henry [ 19 ] similar to those for the finite-dimensional ODE case. The present setting involving discontinuous background waves and quasilinear hyperbolic equations requires a much more technical analysis, at the frontier of the current knowledge on nonlinear wave stability theory.

The expository choice we make is to borrow results from the forthcoming [ 15 ] that carries out a systematic development in a more general setting, in the spirit of [ 14 ], where Propositions  5.1 and  5.2 below are proved. We stress however that, to a large extent, a relatively simple adaptation of the techniques used in [ 39 ] for the neutrally stable case. Footnote 8 would already be sufficient for the present case. Nevertheless a self-contained exposition of this adequate version would essentially double the size of the present contribution. Even for the smooth case, none of the results in the literature seems directly applicable to yield the time-exponential stability proved below, but, likewise, a relatively simple variation on the neutrally-stable treatments [ 26 , 27 ] would yield the required result.

5.1 Linear Estimates

We begin with estimates for the linearized problem ( 3.3 ),

with initial data \(v_0(x)\) and interior source term F ( t ,  x ).

Proposition 5.1

Let \(W=(H,Q)\) be a traveling-wave solution of type (v) and consider \((\eta _L,\eta _R)\) spatial weight growths ensuring Footnote 9 a spectral gap. Then there exist positive \(\theta \) and C such that for any \(1\le p\le \infty \) , if

then for v the unique mild solution to ( 5.1 ) (in \({{\mathcal {C}}}^0({\mathbb {R}}_+;L^p_{\eta _L,\eta _R}({\mathbb {R}}))\) if \(1\le p<\infty \) , \({{\mathcal {C}}}^0({\mathbb {R}}_+;BUC^0_{\eta _L,\eta _R}({\mathbb {R}}))\) if \(p=\infty \) ) with initial data \(v_0\) , there exists a phase shift \(\varphi \in {{\mathcal {C}}}^1({\mathbb {R}}_+)\) vanishing initially such that for any \(t\ge 0\)

In the foregoing statement \(BUC^0(\Omega )\) denotes the space of functions that are bounded on \(\Omega \) , and uniformly continuous on each connected component of \(\Omega \) .

We recall that Duhamel formula enables one to reduce the previous statement to the sourceless case. Moreover we point out that in the case \(p=2\) the statement follows from the Gearhart–Prüss theorem and high-frequency bounds on resolvents.

Consider again the linearized problem ( 3.4 ):

with initial data \((v_0(x),\psi _0)\) , interior source term F ( t ,  x ), and boundary source-term G ( t ). Recall from the original derivation of ( 3.4 ) that here there is no freedom in the phase shift that may be removed from v so as to obtain time decay. We need to prove that \(v-(-\psi )\,W'\) is decaying. In contrast, in the smooth case, the phase shift \(\varphi \) is far from unique.

Proposition 5.2

Let \(W=(H,Q)\) be a traveling-wave solution of type (ii)-(iv) satisfying the sharp convective spectral stability condition Footnote 10

and consider \((\eta _L,\eta _R)\) spatial weight growths ensuring, Footnote 11 a spectral gap. Then there exist positive \(\theta \) and C such that for any \(1\le p\le \infty \) , if

then \((v,\psi )\) , the unique mild solution to ( 5.3 ) with initial data \((v_0,\psi _0)\) , satisfies for any \(t\ge 0\)

Note that the level of regularity of the previous statement is insufficient, alone, to define traces at \(0^\pm \) . The existence of those is a consequence of the fact that \((v,\psi )\) solves ( 5.3 ) and that the shock is non characteristic.

5.2 Nonlinear Stability

Using Propositions  5.1 and  5.2 in order to prove nonlinear stability results induces a severe loss of derivatives due to the quasilinear character of the original system. A by-now classical way to cure this loss is to combine the latter with nonlinear high-frequency damping estimates, that show that as long as the Lipschitz norm of the solution remains under control, the time decay of any Sobolev norm is slaved to the time decay of the \(L^2\) norm. Designing such nonlinear high-frequency damping estimates is a significant part of the nonlinear stability analysis. When proceeding in this way, it is actually sufficient to prove linear stability with derivative losses, as accessible through what the fourth author has dubbed the “poor man’s Prüss construction” [ 42 ]. On nonlinear high-frequency damping estimates, we refer to [ 29 , Appendix A] for an introduction the classical Kawashima version for the stability of constant states [ 23 , 36 ] and to [ 14 , 27 , 32 , 39 ] for versions more directly related to the present analysis.

Theorem 5.3

Let \(W=(H,Q)\) be a traveling-wave solution of type (v) and consider \((\eta _L,\eta _R)\) spatial weight growths ensuring Footnote 12 a spectral gap, with \(\eta _L\) positive and \(\eta _R\) negative. Then there exist positive \(\delta \) , \(\theta \) and C such that if

then for w the unique mild solution to ( 1.1 ) (in \({{\mathcal {C}}}^0({\mathbb {R}}_+;H^2_{\eta _L,\eta _R}({\mathbb {R}}))\) ) with initial data \(w_0\) , there exists a phase shift \(\varphi \in {{\mathcal {C}}}^1({\mathbb {R}}_+)\) vanishing initially and an asymptotic shift \(\varphi _\infty \in {\mathbb {R}}\) such that for any \(t\ge 0\)

and \(|\varphi _\infty |\le C\,\delta _{w_0}\) .

Theorem 5.4

Let \(W=(H,Q)\) be a traveling-wave solution of type (ii)-(iv) satisfying the sharp convective spectral stability condition Footnote 13

and consider \((\eta _L,\eta _R)\) spatial weight growths ensuring, Footnote 14 a spectral gap, with \(\eta _L\) positive and \(\eta _R\) negative. Then there exist positive \(\delta \) , \(\theta \) and C such that if

with \(w_0-W\) supported away from zero, then there exists a global solution to ( 1.1 ), w , with initial data \(w_0\) having at each time \(t\ge 0\) a single shock, located at \(ct+\psi (t)\) , with \(\psi \in {{\mathcal {C}}}^1({\mathbb {R}}_+)\) vanishing initially and an asymptotic shift \(\psi _\infty \in {\mathbb {R}}\) such that for any \(t\ge 0\)

and \(|\psi _\infty |\le C\,\delta _{w_0}\) .

Note that none of the constants depend on how far the support of \(w_0-W\) is from 0. The assumption is simply made to assure that the initial data is compatible with the short-time persistence of a single-shock piecewise- \(H^2\) solution. We could have instead assumed directly the optimal but cumbersome compatibility conditions, as in [ 14 , 15 ]. On the related local-in-time propagation of regularity we refer to [ 6 , 28 ].

6 Numerical Time-Evolution Experiments

Left panel: Dambreak initial data ( 6.1 ); Right panel: Dambreak initial data ( 6.2 )

Space-time plots of simulations shown in Figs.  7 , 8 , 9 and 10

6.1 Nonmonotone Discontinuous Waves and Riemann Shock

Throughout this section we set \(H_L=1\) and \(H_R=0.7\) . We first note that profiles are of nonmonotone discontinuous type (ii) if

and they are convectively exponentially stable given that

When \(F=\frac{\sqrt{85}}{10}+\frac{\sqrt{238}}{14}\) profiles are of Riemann shock type (iii) and convectively exponentially stable. In all cases, speed of the waves is given by

For our numerical experiments, we use a perturbed dambreak initial data given by

See Fig.  5 left panel for a plot of ( 6.1 ).

Numerical simulation of ( 1.1 ) with \(F=2.28\) and initial data ( 6.1 )

Note that the slower speed of the invading front can be heuristically predicted by tracking how the absolute spectrum associated with \(H_L\) depends on the speed of the moving frame in which it is computed. To be more concrete, we revisit computations from Sect.  3.2 by allowing the speed of the moving frame s to vary (instead of being fixed to c , the wave speed of the traveling wave of interest) and correspondingly mark with s different quantities introduced there. We are interested in the absolute spectrum of \(H_L\) at speed s , that is in the \(\lambda \) such that the real parts of the spatial eigenvalues of \(G_{H_L,s}(\lambda )\) coincide, \(\textrm{Re}(\gamma _{-,H_L,s}(\lambda ))=\textrm{Re}(\gamma _{+,H_L,s}(\lambda ))\) . Following [ 13 ], we may define a so-called absolute spreading speed \(s_\textrm{abs}\) as the infimum of wave speeds s for which the absolute spectrum remains unstable in the moving frame s . Computations from Sect.  3.2 yield

In our case, with \(F=2.30\) , \(H_L=1\) and \(H_R=0.7\) , we have \(s_\textrm{abs}-c=-0.00305\ldots \) . The dashed line in the second panel of Fig.  6 has precisely a slope given by \(s_\textrm{abs}-c\) which matches the onset of the invading roll waves quite accurately.

Numerical simulation of ( 1.1 ) with \(F=2.30\) and initial data ( 6.1 )

Numerical simulation of ( 1.1 ) with \(F=\frac{\sqrt{85}}{10}+\frac{\sqrt{238}}{14}\) and initial data ( 6.1 )

6.2 Increasing Smooth Waves

Finally, we make \(H_R>H_L\) to test if the corresponding increasing smooth “reverse shock” can be the large-time asymptotic limit. We fix \(H_L=1\) and \(H_R=1.3\) such that profiles are of increasing smooth type (i) if

See Fig.  5 right panel for a plot of ( 6.2 ). We report an “invading back” connecting roll wave patterns on the left to a constant state on the right. See Fig.  10 for plots at time 5, 25, and 100 of fluid heights in the comoving frame \(c=\frac{H_L+\sqrt{H_LH_R}+H_R}{\sqrt{H_L}+\sqrt{H_R}}\sim 1.6074\) and Fig.  6 last panel for a space-time plot. This illustrates once again that our (local) stability conditions indeed successfully predict large-scale asymptotic behavior.

We also tested the predictive feature of the absolute spreading speed introduced in the convectively unstable case beyond its expected range of validity by computing \(s_\textrm{abs}\) in the present case and found \(s_\textrm{abs}-c=-0.3852\ldots \) . Quite surprisingly and remarkably, this predicted speed compares well with the speed of the primary invading front (see the dashed line in the forth panel of Fig.  6 ) for short time.

Numerical simulation of ( 1.1 ) with \(F=3\) and initial data ( 6.2 )

Roll Wave Selection . So far we are lacking even a heuristic argument to predict which roll wave is selected in the invading front pattern. Let us recall that, even when the translational invariance is quotiented, roll waves form a two-parameter family.

By integrating over a large space-time box the conservation law of (SV), one may derive formally a constraint equation

where \(\langle A\rangle \) denotes the average of the quantity A over one period of the roll wave pattern. Yet this is one equation short to fully identify the roll pattern, leaving a degree of freedom still to be determined.

Looking toward the future, we would like to add two more comments on this question. First, we point out that we have estimated numerically the wave period and wave speed of the observed roll pattern (as approximately 1 and 1.4 respectively) and checked that the wave does lie in the stability region of the roll-wave stability diagram [ 21 , Fig. 3(c)].

Second, we mention that the oscillatory instability pattern between \(H_L\) and the roll-wave seems to be expanding linearly in time, preventing a direct connection from the roll-wave to \(H_L\) . One can not exclude that the identification of the missing roll parameter requires a deep understanding of this pattern in a way reminiscent of the resolution of the Gurevich–Pitaevskii problem through the analysis of dispersive shocks [ 5 ].

A complete, rigorous treatment of this bifurcation would be very interesting to carry out.

Data availability

Data will be made available on reasonable request.

It was incorrectly stated there, as a side remark, that for hydrodynamically unstable endstates, the only hydraulic shock profiles were smooth, “reverse”-direction shocks not connected to equilibrium dynamics.

In both directions.

The first part corresponds to the Riemann shock case.

For the moment we have only proved stabilization of the essential spectrum but we do prove full stability in the end.

With obvious notational adaptation for weighted spaces.

It should not be confused with the w used in the initial introduction of the spectral problem.

Consistently with our convention for scalar products, they are linear in their second factors.

See also the related discussion of [ 39 , p. 201].

For instance, \(\eta _L\) positive and \(\eta _R\) negative both sufficiently small in absolute value.

Automatically satisfied in cases (iii) and (iv).

For instance, when \(F>2\) , \(\eta _L\in (\eta _L^\textrm{min}\eta _L^\textrm{max})\) and \(\eta _R\) sufficiently negative; when \(F<2\) , \(\eta _L\) positive and \(\eta _R\) negative both sufficiently small in absolute value.

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G.F. acknowledges support from the ANR via the project Indyana under Grant Agreement ANR-21-CE40-0008 and Labex CIMI under Grant Agreement ANR-11-LABX-0040. Research of L.M.R. was partially supported by EPSRC Grant No. EP/R014604/1. Research of K.Z. was partially supported under NSF Grant Nos. DMS-2154387 and DMS-220610.

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Faye, G., Rodrigues, L.M., Yang, Z. et al. Existence and Stability of Nonmonotone Hydraulic Shocks for the Saint Venant Equations of Inclined Thin-Film Flow. Arch Rational Mech Anal 248 , 82 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00205-024-02033-4

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Received : 19 July 2023

Accepted : 23 August 2024

Published : 13 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s00205-024-02033-4

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