example of research paper format

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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Research Paper Template

The fastest (and smartest) way to craft a research paper that showcases your project and earns you marks. 

Available in Google Doc, Word & PDF format 4.9 star rating, 5000 + downloads

Step-by-step instructions

Tried & tested academic format

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Pro tips, tricks and resources

What It Covers

This template’s structure is based on the tried and trusted best-practice format for academic research papers. Its structure reflects the overall research process, ensuring your paper has a smooth, logical flow from chapter to chapter. Here’s what’s included:

• The title page/cover page
• Abstract (or executive summary)
• Section 1: Introduction 
• Section 2: Literature review 
• Section 3: Methodology
• Section 4: Findings /results
• Section 5: Discussion
• Section 6: Conclusion
• Reference list

Each section is explained in plain, straightforward language , followed by an overview of the key elements that you need to cover within each section. 

You can download a fully editable MS Word File (DOCX format), copy it to your Google Drive or paste the content to any other word processor.

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FAQs: Research Paper Template

What format is the template (doc, pdf, ppt, etc.).

The research paper template is provided as a Google Doc. You can download it in MS Word format or make a copy to your Google Drive. You’re also welcome to convert it to whatever format works best for you, such as LaTeX or PDF.

What types of research papers can this template be used for?

The template follows the standard best-practice structure for formal academic research papers, so it is suitable for the vast majority of degrees, particularly those within the sciences.

Some universities may have some additional requirements, but these are typically minor, with the core structure remaining the same. Therefore, it’s always a good idea to double-check your university’s requirements before you finalise your structure.

Is this template for an undergrad, Masters or PhD-level research paper?

This template can be used for a research paper at any level of study. It may be slight overkill for an undergraduate-level study, but it certainly won’t be missing anything.

How long should my research paper be?

This depends entirely on your university’s specific requirements, so it’s best to check with them. We include generic word count ranges for each section within the template, but these are purely indicative. 

What about the research proposal?

If you’re still working on your research proposal, we’ve got a template for that here .

We’ve also got loads of proposal-related guides and videos over on the Grad Coach blog .

How do I write a literature review?

We have a wealth of free resources on the Grad Coach Blog that unpack how to write a literature review from scratch. You can check out the literature review section of the blog here.

How do I create a research methodology?

We have a wealth of free resources on the Grad Coach Blog that unpack research methodology, both qualitative and quantitative. You can check out the methodology section of the blog here.

Can I share this research paper template with my friends/colleagues?

Yes, you’re welcome to share this template. If you want to post about it on your blog or social media, all we ask is that you reference this page as your source.

Can Grad Coach help me with my research paper?

Within the template, you’ll find plain-language explanations of each section, which should give you a fair amount of guidance. However, you’re also welcome to consider our private coaching services .

Additional Resources

If you’re working on a research paper or report, be sure to also check these resources out…

1-On-1 Private Coaching

The Grad Coach Resource Center

The Grad Coach YouTube Channel

The Grad Coach Podcast

How to format a research paper

Last updated

7 February 2023

Reviewed by

Miroslav Damyanov

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Writing a research paper can be daunting if you’re not experienced with the process. Getting the proper format is one of the most challenging aspects of the task. Reviewers will immediately dismiss a paper that doesn't comply with standard formatting, regardless of the valuable content it contains. 

In this article, we'll delve into the essential characteristics of a research paper, including the proper formatting.

Make research less tedious

Dovetail streamlines research to help you uncover and share actionable insights

• What is a research paper?

A research paper is a document that provides a thorough analysis of a topic , usually for an academic institution or professional organization. A research paper may be of any length, but they are typically 2,000–10,000 words. 

Unlike less formal papers, such as articles or essays, empirical evidence and data are key to research papers. In addition to students handing in papers, scientists, attorneys, medical researchers, and independent scholars may need to produce research papers.

People typically write research papers to prove a particular point or make an argument. This could support or disprove a theoretical point, legal case, scientific theory, or an existing piece of research on any topic. 

One of the distinguishing characteristics of research papers is that they contain citations to prior research. Citing sources using the correct format is essential for creating a legitimate research paper. 

• Top considerations for writing a research paper

To write a research paper, you must consider several factors. Fields such as the sciences, humanities, and technical professions have certain criteria for writing research papers. 

You’ll write a research paper using one of several types of formatting. These include APA, MLA, and CMOS styles, which we’ll cover in detail to guide you on citations and other formatting rules. 

Specific requirements of the assignment

If the paper is for a college, university, or any specific organization, they’ll give you certain requirements, such as the range of topics, length, and formatting requirements.

You should study the specifics of the assignment carefully, as these will override more general guidelines you may find elsewhere. If you're writing for a particular professor, they may ask for single or double spacing or a certain citation style. 

• Components of a research paper

Here are the basic steps to writing a quality research paper, assuming you've chosen your topic and considered the requirements of the paper. Depending on the specific conditions of the paper you're writing, you may need the following elements:

Thesis statement

The thesis statement provides a blueprint for the paper. It conveys the theme and purpose of the paper. It also informs you and readers what your paper will argue and the type of research it will contain. As you write the paper, you can refer to the thesis statement to help you decide whether or not to include certain items.

Most research papers require an abstract as well as a thesis. While the thesis is a short (usually a single sentence) summary of the work, an abstract contains more detail. Many papers use the IMRaD structure for the abstract, especially in scientific fields. This consists of four elements:

Introduction : Summarize the purpose of the paper

Methods : Describe the research methods (e.g., collecting data , interviews , field research)

Results: Summarize your conclusions.  

Discussion: Discuss the implications of your research. Mention any significant limitations to your approach and suggest areas for further research.

The thesis and abstract come at the beginning of a paper, but you should write them after completing the paper. This approach ensures a clear idea of your main topic and argument, which can evolve as you write the paper.

Table of contents

Like most nonfiction books, a research paper usually includes a table of contents. 

Tables, charts, and illustrations

If your paper contains multiple tables, charts, illustrations, or other graphics, you can create a list of these. 

Works cited or reference page

This page lists all the works you cited in your paper. For MLA and APA styles, you will use in-text citations in the body of the paper. For Chicago (CMOS) style, you'll use footnotes. 

Bibliography

While you use a reference page to note all cited papers, a bibliography lists all the works you consulted in your research, even if you don't specifically cite them. 

While references are essential, a bibliography is optional but usually advisable to demonstrate the breadth of your research.

Dedication and acknowledgments

You may include a dedication or acknowledgments at the beginning of the paper directly after the title page and before the abstract.

• Steps for writing a research paper

These are the most critical steps for researching, writing, and formatting a research paper:

Create an outline

The outline is not part of the published paper; it’s for your use. An outline makes it easier to structure the paper, ensuring you include all necessary points and research. 

Here you can list all topics and subtopics that will support your argument. When doing your research, you can refer to the outline to ensure you include everything. 

Gather research

Solid research is the hallmark of a research paper. In addition to accumulating research, you need to present it clearly. However, gathering research is one of the first tasks. If you compile each piece of research correctly, it will be easier to format the paper correctly. You want to avoid having to go back and look up information constantly.

Start by skimming potentially useful sources and putting them aside for later use. Reading each source thoroughly at this stage will be time-consuming and slow your progress. You can thoroughly review the sources to decide what to include and discard later. At this stage, note essential information such as names, dates, page numbers, and website links. Citing sources will be easier when you’ve written all the information down.

Be aware of the quality of your sources. A research paper should reference scholarly, academic, or scientific journals. It’s vital to understand the difference between primary and secondary sources. 

A primary source is an original, firsthand account of a topic. A secondary source is someone else covering the topic, as in a popular article or interview. While you may include secondary sources, your paper should also include primary research . Online research can be convenient, but you need to be extra careful when assessing the quality of your sources.

Write the first draft

Create a first draft where you put together all your research and address the topic described in your thesis and abstract. 

Edit and format the paper

Proofread, edit, and make any necessary adjustments and improvements to the first draft. List your citations as described below. Ensure your thesis and abstract describe your research accurately. 

• Formatting a research paper: MLA, APA, and CMOS styles

There are several popular formats for research papers: MLA (Modern Language Association) and APA (American Psychological Association). Certain academic papers use CMOS (Chicago Manual of Style). Other formats may apply to particular fields. 

For example, medical research may use AMA (American Medical Association) formatting and IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) for particular technical papers. The following are the guidelines and examples of the most popular formats:

The humanities typically use MLA format, including literature, history, and culture. Look over examples of papers created in MLA format . Here are the main rules to keep in mind:

Double-spaced lines.

Indent new paragraphs 1/2 inch.

Title case for headings, where all major words are capitalized, as in "How to Write a Research Paper." 

Use a popular font such as Times New Roman. This applies to all formatting styles.

Use one-inch margins on all sides. 

Number sections of the paper using Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.). 

Use a running head for each page on the upper right-hand corner, which consists of your last name and the page number.

Use an in-text citation within the text, using the author's last name followed by the page number: "Anything worth dying for is certainly worth living for" (Heller 155).  

On the citations page, list the full name, book or periodical, and other information. For MLA, you will not need footnotes, only in-text citations.

List citations in alphabetical order on a separate page at the end of the paper entitled “Works Cited.” 

Continuing with the above example from Heller, the listing would be: Heller, Joseph. Catch-22, Simon & Schuster, 1961.

For a periodical, the format is "Thompson, Hunter S. "The Kentucky Derby is Decadent and Depraved" Scanlon's, June 1970."

Use title case for source titles, as in "On the Origin of Species."

The sciences typically use APA format, including physical sciences such as physics and social sciences such as psychology. Simply Psychology provides examples of APA formatting . The following are the most important rules of the APA format.

Begin the paper with a title page, which is not required for MLA.

Use double-line spacing.

Use a running head for each page in the upper right-hand corner, which consists of the paper's title in capital letters followed by the page number.

The citations page at the end should be titled "References."

In-text citations should include the publication date: (Smith, 1999, p. 50). Note also that there's a "p" for "page," whereas in MLA, you write the page number without a "p."

As with MLA, use title case for headings, as in "Most Popular Treatments for Cognitive Disorders."

Use sentence case for titles of sources, as in "History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire." Note "Roman" starts with a capital because it's a proper noun.  

When citing in-text references, use the author's last name and the first and middle initials. 

Always use the Oxford comma. This comma goes before the words "or" and "and" in a list. For example, "At the store, I bought oranges, paper towels, and pasta."

CMOS formatting

Book publishers and many academic papers use CMOS formatting based on the Chicago Manual of Style. CMOS is also called Turabian, named after Kate L. Turabian, who wrote the first manual for this style. Here are examples of CMOS style formatting and citations.

Include an unnumbered title page.

Place page numbers on the upper right-hand corner of the page. Do not list your name or the paper's title as you would for MLA or APA styles.

Use title case for both headings and sources (same as MLA).

Unlike MLA and APA, the Chicago style uses footnotes for citations. Use a superscript for footnotes: "Smith argues against Jones' theory¹.” Footnotes may appear at the bottom of the page or the end of the document.  

CMOS supports both short notes and full notes. In most cases, you'll use the full note: "Michael Pollan, The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals (New York: Penguin, 2006), 76." For further references to the same source, use a short note: " Pollan, Omnivore's Dilemma, 45." The requirements of some papers may specify using only short notes for all footnotes.

• General guidelines for writing and formatting research papers

Keep these guidelines in mind for all types of research papers:

Initial formatting

As you create your first draft, don't worry about formatting. If you try to format it perfectly as you write the paper, it will be difficult to progress and develop a flow of thought. With the first draft, you don't have to be concerned about ordering the sections. You can rearrange headings and sections later. 

Citation tools

Use automation tools for citations . Some useful tools make citations easier by automatically generating a citation list and bibliography. Many work with APA, MLA, and CMOS styles.

Check for plagiarism

Use a plagiarism detector to make sure your paper isn't unintentionally plagiarizing. There are many free and paid plagiarism checkers online, such as Grammarly. 

Proofread your work

Do several rounds of editing and proofreading. Editing is necessary for any type of writing, but you’ll need to revisit several distinct areas with a research paper:

Check for spelling and grammatical errors.

Read the paper to make sure it's well-argued and that you’ve organized it properly. 

Check that you’ve correctly formatted citations. It's easy to make errors, such as incorrect numbering of footnotes (e.g., Chicago style) or forgetting to include a source on your citations page.

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Need editing and proofreading services, research paper format: apa, mla, & chicago style.

• Tags: APA , APA Style , Formatting Guidelines

In academia, research papers help us share key findings and valuable knowledge with everyone. Whether you’re in high school, college, or university, you must know how to format a research paper so you can submit a well-organized document.

The three standard formats of research papers widely used in academia are MLA, APA, and the Chicago research paper format. We’ll discuss all three paper formats in detail with actionable tips and guidelines to help you avoid rookie formatting mistakes.

We’ve also added several examples of research paper formats so you can easily learn the proper way to structure and format your research paper. Given below are the three types of research paper formats widely used in academia:

1.  APA format

The American Psychological Association (APA) format is a research paper format popular among scholars, especially in sciences and social sciences. This style emphasizes clarity and conciseness, making it an excellent format for presenting complex scientific ideas in a digestible manner.

Just so we cover all bases, we’ve included plenty of research paper format examples. Take a look!

General guidelines

The  APA paper format follows a set of simple yet strict guidelines to ensure uniformity across different works. Here are some tips on how to format a paper in APA style:

• Double-space all your text.
• Maintain one-inch margins on all sides of the paper.
• Use a font style that is easy to read (typically 12-point Times New Roman).
• Include an APA header on all pages of your paper.
• Make sure each new paragraph is indented by 0.5 inches.

Take a look at this research paper format example outlining the various APA formatting guidelines:

One of the key features of the APA format is its title page. The APA title page serves as the face of your research paper layout, providing essential information about your work. Keep the following in mind:

• Write a title that’s a crisp summary of the paper’s content.
• Mention the author’s name without any titles or degrees.
• Mention the institutional affiliation (the place where the research was conducted).
• Add a header at the top of the page.

Reference page

The reference page is a critical part of the layout of a research paper in the APA style. This page lists all the sources you’ve referenced in your paper. It’s essential for avoiding plagiarism and providing your readers with the opportunity to explore your sources further.

Follow the tips mentioned below when formatting your reference page in APA style:

• Add a “References” label at the top and align it centrally.
• Organize your entries alphabetically based on the last names of the authors.
• Ensure that every entry is double-spaced.
• Acknowledge all sources in the text to maintain transparency in your research process.

Special formatting guidelines

Major headings under APA 7 are bolded and aligned centrally, while the subheadings are indented and end with a period. Subsequent levels of headings are used here:

This format of research papers necessitates a distinct heading structure, facilitating seamless navigation through the different formats. It also implements a unique citation format, guaranteeing that all your references are accurately acknowledged. Major headings are bolded and center-aligned, whereas subheadings are indented and end with a period.

The subsequent levels of headings are used in the APA paper format:

• Level 1: Bold, centered
• Level 2: Bold, left-aligned
• Level 3: Bold italic, left-aligned
• Level 4: Indented, bold
• Level 5: Indented, bold italic

Bonus tip: Titles for tables and figures should be succinct and clear and should be referenced in the text by their respective number. For instance, “As demonstrated in Table 1…”

2.  MLA format

The Modern Language Association (MLA) format is another frequently utilized format for research paper writing, primarily within the humanities. It underscores authorship, making it an excellent choice for papers that concentrate on original analysis.

For the visual learners out there, we’ve added some research paper format examples for your benefit! So, make sure you follow these guidelines while writing your paper.

The general guidelines of the MLA paper writing format are designed to establish a uniform and professional appearance for your work. Follow these steps when formatting your paper in MLA format:

• Use double spacing for your text. 
• Maintain one-inch margins all around.
• Opt for a readable font like 12-point Times New Roman.
• Incorporate a header with your last name and page number on every page.
• Use title case for headings, capitalizing the first letter of each major word.

The MLA paper format doesn’t typically necessitate a separate title page. Instead, the required information is positioned on the first page of the paper, which includes the following:

• Name of the student
• Instructor’s name
• Title of the course
• Date of submission

The title of the paper is presented in the next line, bolded and centered. It’s crucial to ensure that your title is informative and mirrors the content of your research paper.

Bonus tip: Refrain from italicizing, underlining, or bolding the title. Also, don’t use a period after the title.

Works cited page

The “Works Cited” page in the MLA 9 format lists all the sources referenced in your paper. This page plays a crucial role in formatting research papers to avoid plagiarism. While working on your MLA works cited page, keep the following points in mind:

• Start on a new page with the label “Works Cited”, centered and bolded at the top.
• List your entries in alphabetical order by the last names of the authors.
• Make sure each entry is double-spaced.

Remember, the works cited page is not a bibliography. It should only include sources you’ve quoted or paraphrased in your paper!

One of the defining characteristics of the MLA format is its use of parenthetical citations, making the MLA research paper format unique. Instead of footnotes or endnotes, sources are cited in the text using the author’s last name and the page number. For example, (Smith 23). 

Here are some additional guidelines for formatting your paper:

• In-text citations should directly follow the quote or paraphrase, but they should come before the period at the end of the sentence.
• Every major word in the title of a work must be capitalized.

3.  Chicago format

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), or simply the Chicago research paper format , is another commonly used style in academic and professional writing. Preferred by historians, this format offers flexibility and comprehensiveness to accommodate a wide variety of sources.

The general guidelines of the Chicago format are similar to those of the MLA and APA research paper formats, with minor differences. 

Here are the key points to remember about the Chicago paper format:

• Use double spacing for the main text.
• Use single spacing for block quotes, table titles, and figure captions.
• Maintain one-inch margins on all sides for a neat presentation.
• Use a readable font such as Times New Roman, size 12 pt.
• Start page numbers from the second page, and place them in the top right corner.

In the Chicago style, the title page includes the title of the paper, the author’s name, and your course information. Unlike other styles, the title page of a Chicago-formatted paper does not carry a page number or a running head. 

Remember these two things while formatting your Chicago title page:

• Make sure the title is positioned at the center of the page.
• Add your name and class information some lines below the table.

Observe the following example for the Chicago research paper format:

The reference page in the Chicago style is referred to as the “Bibliography”. This page includes all the sources that you’ve cited in your paper.  To correctly format your bibliography, follow the points mentioned below:

• Begin on a new page with the title “Bibliography” centered at the top.
• List your sources in alphabetical order by author’s last name.
• Use a “hanging indent” for each entry (the first line begins at the margin and the following lines are indented).

Bonus Tip: Make sure the bibliography includes all works that were consulted, not just those cited in the text.

One of the unique features of the Chicago style is its use of footnotes or endnotes for citations. When you quote or paraphrase a source, you’ll include a superscript number in the text that corresponds to a note with the citation information.

Here are some additional guidelines to format your paper in the Chicago style:

• Number the footnotes or endnotes consecutively, using Arabic numbers.
• You can be flexible with headings: Either stick to the classic five-level style or create your own.
• Ensure you stay consistent in your approach throughout your paper.

Bonus tip: The first time you’re citing a source, give all the citation info. Feel free to use the short version after that.

Formatting your research paper is much more than just improving aesthetics. It’s about making things easy to read, keeping everything on-brand, and showcasing your attention to detail. Understanding the nitty gritty of the APA, MLA, or Chicago research paper formats is essential to producing high-quality and well-organized research papers. 

We hope this article showed you how to format a research paper. After all, it’s our duty to equip you with the tools you need to excel academically. Otherwise, what good is our expertise as a paper editing service ?

If you’d like to keep creating well-researched and organized scholarly papers, here are some resources that could help:

• How to Write a Thesis Statement: Examples & Tips
• How to Write a MEAL Paragraph? Writing Plan Explained in Detail
• What Is a Mind Map? Free Mind Map Templates & Examples    
• Literary Analysis Essay: 5 Steps to a Perfect Assignment  
• Research Paper Proofreading | Definition, Significance & Standard Rates  
• Independent vs. Dependent Variables | Meaning & Examples

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How to Format Your Research Paper

Writing your paper: apa 7th edition, apa style papers 7th edition.

• MLA Paper Format
• Chicago Paper Format
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APA 7th Edition Resources

• APA Style | Style and Grammar Guidelines The style and grammar guidelines pages present information about APA Style as described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition.
• Purdue OWL: APA Style Guide This Purdue OWL style guide will help you in citing your sources in the APA Style commonly used to cite sources within the area of social sciences.

Things to know before you begin:

• Sans serif fonts: Arial (11-point), Calibri (11-point), or Lucinda Sans Unicode (10-point)
• Serif fonts: Times New Roman (12-point), Georgia (11-point), or Computer Modern (10-point)
• Margins:  1 inch on all sides
• Paragraphs:  All paragraphs (except in the Abstract) should be indented
• Spacing:  All of the text in your paper should be double-spaced (title page included)

Typical APA style papers have four main sections:

See the tabs below for a breakdown of how each portion should be formatted.

• Paper Templates
• Sample Papers
• APA 7 Citations

Below you will find templates for APA Style papers. Click the link to make a copy of the file. 

• Google Docs : To make a copy of these templates you must first sign in to your Google account. After you’re signed in, click "File" and then click “Make a Copy.”
• Microsoft Word : To make a copy of these templates download the file. 

• APA Style Student Paper Template (7th Edition) - Word Download a copy of this Word Doc and change the pre-filled information to your own.

APA Style Report Templates: These templates include multiple heading levels and should be used for report style papers.

• APA Style Student Report Template (7th Edition) - Word Download a copy of this Word Doc and change the pre-filled information to your own.

Below you will find an example of an accurately formatted APA Style student paper. 

• APA Style Student Paper Sample (7th Edition) - PDF Click here to see a sample of an accurately formatted APA style student paper.
• APA Style Student Paper Sample (7th Edition) - Word Click here to see a sample of an accurately formatted APA style student paper.

Place only page numbers in the header. 

Your paper should have the full title in bold. Place an extra space beneath the title and before your name.

Your name, your affiliation, the course title, professor’s name, and due date should be double spaced beneath the title.

All of this should be in the center of the title page.

• Put the word “Abstract” on the top of the page. Be sure it is center-aligned and in bold.
• Do not indent any paragraphs on this page.

Indent all other paragraphs throughout the body of the paper. 

• Place the entire title of your paper in Title Case on the top line of a new page.
• Be sure it is center-aligned and in bold.

• Center-align the word “References” on the first line of a new page, be sure that it is in bold.
• Your citations should be alphabetized.
• Entries are double-spaced with no extra lines between them.
• Be sure to use a hanging indent for any citations that require more than one line.

Need help formatting your APA style citations using the 7th edition of the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association ? Click the image or link below to go to the citation guide.

• APA 7th Edition Citations

Need help learning what hanging indents are and how to create them using Google Docs or Microsoft Word? 

• Hanging Indents This page gives a brief description of what they are, where to find information on when and how to properly use them, and also video tutorials on how to create them.
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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

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Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Title Page Setup

A title page is required for all APA Style papers. There are both student and professional versions of the title page. Students should use the student version of the title page unless their instructor or institution has requested they use the professional version. APA provides a student title page guide (PDF, 199KB) to assist students in creating their title pages.

Student title page

The student title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline), author affiliation, course number and name for which the paper is being submitted, instructor name, assignment due date, and page number, as shown in this example.

Title page setup is covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 2.3 and the Concise Guide Section 1.6

Related handouts

• Student Title Page Guide (PDF, 263KB)
• Student Paper Setup Guide (PDF, 3MB)

Student papers do not include a running head unless requested by the instructor or institution.

Follow the guidelines described next to format each element of the student title page.

Professional title page

The professional title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline), author affiliation(s), author note, running head, and page number, as shown in the following example.

Follow the guidelines described next to format each element of the professional title page.

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Crafting a comprehensive research paper can be daunting. Understanding diverse citation styles and various subject areas presents a challenge for many.

Without clear examples, students often feel lost and overwhelmed, unsure of how to start or which style fits their subject.

Explore our collection of expertly written research paper examples. We’ve covered various citation styles and a diverse range of subjects.

So, read on!

• 1. Research Paper Example for Different Formats
• 2. Examples for Different Research Paper Parts
• 3. Research Paper Examples for Different Fields
• 4. Research Paper Example Outline

Research Paper Example for Different Formats

Following a specific formatting style is essential while writing a research paper . Knowing the conventions and guidelines for each format can help you in creating a perfect paper. Here we have gathered examples of research paper for most commonly applied citation styles :

Social Media and Social Media Marketing: A Literature Review

APA Research Paper Example

APA (American Psychological Association) style is commonly used in social sciences, psychology, and education. This format is recognized for its clear and concise writing, emphasis on proper citations, and orderly presentation of ideas.

Here are some research paper examples in APA style:

Research Paper Example APA 7th Edition

Research Paper Example MLA

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is frequently employed in humanities disciplines, including literature, languages, and cultural studies. An MLA research paper might explore literature analysis, linguistic studies, or historical research within the humanities. 

Here is an example:

Found Voices: Carl Sagan

Research Paper Example Chicago

Chicago style is utilized in various fields like history, arts, and social sciences. Research papers in Chicago style could delve into historical events, artistic analyses, or social science inquiries. 

Here is a research paper formatted in Chicago style:

Chicago Research Paper Sample

Research Paper Example Harvard

Harvard style is widely used in business, management, and some social sciences. Research papers in Harvard style might address business strategies, case studies, or social policies.

View this sample Harvard style paper here:

Harvard Research Paper Sample

Examples for Different Research Paper Parts

A research paper has different parts. Each part is important for the overall success of the paper. Chapters in a research paper must be written correctly, using a certain format and structure.

The following are examples of how different sections of the research paper can be written.

Research Proposal

The research proposal acts as a detailed plan or roadmap for your study, outlining the focus of your research and its significance. It's essential as it not only guides your research but also persuades others about the value of your study.

Example of Research Proposal

An abstract serves as a concise overview of your entire research paper. It provides a quick insight into the main elements of your study. It summarizes your research's purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions in a brief format.

Research Paper Example Abstract

Literature Review 

A literature review summarizes the existing research on your study's topic, showcasing what has already been explored. This section adds credibility to your own research by analyzing and summarizing prior studies related to your topic.

Literature Review Research Paper Example

Methodology

The methodology section functions as a detailed explanation of how you conducted your research. This part covers the tools, techniques, and steps used to collect and analyze data for your study.

Methods Section of Research Paper Example

How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper

The conclusion summarizes your findings, their significance and the impact of your research. This section outlines the key takeaways and the broader implications of your study's results.

Research Paper Conclusion Example

Research Paper Examples for Different Fields

Research papers can be about any subject that needs a detailed study. The following examples show research papers for different subjects.

History Research Paper Sample

Preparing a history research paper involves investigating and presenting information about past events. This may include exploring perspectives, analyzing sources, and constructing a narrative that explains the significance of historical events.

View this history research paper sample:

Many Faces of Generalissimo Fransisco Franco

Sociology Research Paper Sample

In sociology research, statistics and data are harnessed to explore societal issues within a particular region or group. These findings are thoroughly analyzed to gain an understanding of the structure and dynamics present within these communities. 

Here is a sample:

A Descriptive Statistical Analysis within the State of Virginia

Science Fair Research Paper Sample

A science research paper involves explaining a scientific experiment or project. It includes outlining the purpose, procedures, observations, and results of the experiment in a clear, logical manner.

Here are some examples:

Science Fair Paper Format

What Do I Need To Do For The Science Fair?

Psychology Research Paper Sample

Writing a psychology research paper involves studying human behavior and mental processes. This process includes conducting experiments, gathering data, and analyzing results to understand the human mind, emotions, and behavior.

Here is an example psychology paper:

The Effects of Food Deprivation on Concentration and Perseverance

Art History Research Paper Sample

Studying art history includes examining artworks, understanding their historical context, and learning about the artists. This helps analyze and interpret how art has evolved over various periods and regions.

Check out this sample paper analyzing European art and impacts:

European Art History: A Primer

Research Paper Example Outline

Before you plan on writing a well-researched paper, make a rough draft. An outline can be a great help when it comes to organizing vast amounts of research material for your paper.

Here is an outline of a research paper example:

Here is a downloadable sample of a standard research paper outline:

Research Paper Outline

Want to create the perfect outline for your paper? Check out this in-depth guide on creating a research paper outline for a structured paper!

Good Research Paper Examples for Students

Here are some more samples of research paper for students to learn from:

Fiscal Research Center - Action Plan

Qualitative Research Paper Example

Research Paper Example Introduction

How to Write a Research Paper Example

Research Paper Example for High School

Now that you have explored the research paper examples, you can start working on your research project. Hopefully, these examples will help you understand the writing process for a research paper.

If you're facing challenges with your writing requirements, you can hire our essay writing help online.

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How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example

Published on August 7, 2022 by Courtney Gahan . Revised on August 15, 2023.

A research paper outline is a useful tool to aid in the writing process , providing a structure to follow with all information to be included in the paper clearly organized.

A quality outline can make writing your research paper more efficient by helping to:

• Organize your thoughts
• Understand the flow of information and how ideas are related
• Ensure nothing is forgotten

A research paper outline can also give your teacher an early idea of the final product.

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Table of contents

Research paper outline example, how to write a research paper outline, formatting your research paper outline, language in research paper outlines.

• Definition of measles
• Rise in cases in recent years in places the disease was previously eliminated or had very low rates of infection
• Figures: Number of cases per year on average, number in recent years. Relate to immunization
• Symptoms and timeframes of disease
• Risk of fatality, including statistics
• How measles is spread
• Immunization procedures in different regions
• Different regions, focusing on the arguments from those against immunization
• Immunization figures in affected regions
• High number of cases in non-immunizing regions
• Illnesses that can result from measles virus
• Fatal cases of other illnesses after patient contracted measles
• Summary of arguments of different groups
• Summary of figures and relationship with recent immunization debate
• Which side of the argument appears to be correct?

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Follow these steps to start your research paper outline:

• Decide on the subject of the paper
• Write down all the ideas you want to include or discuss
• Organize related ideas into sub-groups
• Arrange your ideas into a hierarchy: What should the reader learn first? What is most important? Which idea will help end your paper most effectively?
• Create headings and subheadings that are effective
• Format the outline in either alphanumeric, full-sentence or decimal format

There are three different kinds of research paper outline: alphanumeric, full-sentence and decimal outlines. The differences relate to formatting and style of writing.

• Alphanumeric
• Full-sentence

An alphanumeric outline is most commonly used. It uses Roman numerals, capitalized letters, arabic numerals, lowercase letters to organize the flow of information. Text is written with short notes rather than full sentences.

• Sub-point of sub-point 1

Essentially the same as the alphanumeric outline, but with the text written in full sentences rather than short points.

• Additional sub-point to conclude discussion of point of evidence introduced in point A

A decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline, but with a different numbering system: 1, 1.1, 1.2, etc. Text is written as short notes rather than full sentences.

• 1.1.1 Sub-point of first point
• 1.1.2 Sub-point of first point
• 1.2 Second point

To write an effective research paper outline, it is important to pay attention to language. This is especially important if it is one you will show to your teacher or be assessed on.

There are four main considerations: parallelism, coordination, subordination and division.

Parallelism: Be consistent with grammatical form

Parallel structure or parallelism is the repetition of a particular grammatical form within a sentence, or in this case, between points and sub-points. This simply means that if the first point is a verb , the sub-point should also be a verb.

Example of parallelism:

• Include different regions, focusing on the different arguments from those against immunization

Coordination: Be aware of each point’s weight

Your chosen subheadings should hold the same significance as each other, as should all first sub-points, secondary sub-points, and so on.

Example of coordination:

• Include immunization figures in affected regions
• Illnesses that can result from the measles virus

Subordination: Work from general to specific

Subordination refers to the separation of general points from specific. Your main headings should be quite general, and each level of sub-point should become more specific.

Example of subordination:

Division: break information into sub-points.

Your headings should be divided into two or more subsections. There is no limit to how many subsections you can include under each heading, but keep in mind that the information will be structured into a paragraph during the writing stage, so you should not go overboard with the number of sub-points.

Ready to start writing or looking for guidance on a different step in the process? Read our step-by-step guide on how to write a research paper .

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Gahan, C. (2023, August 15). How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example. Scribbr. Retrieved August 12, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/outline/

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How to Write a Research Proposal: (with Examples & Templates)

Table of Contents

Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers’ plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed research that you intend to undertake. It provides readers with a snapshot of your project by describing what you will investigate, why it is needed, and how you will conduct the research.  

Your research proposal should aim to explain to the readers why your research is relevant and original, that you understand the context and current scenario in the field, have the appropriate resources to conduct the research, and that the research is feasible given the usual constraints.  

This article will describe in detail the purpose and typical structure of a research proposal , along with examples and templates to help you ace this step in your research journey.  

What is a Research Proposal ?  

A research proposal¹ ,²  can be defined as a formal report that describes your proposed research, its objectives, methodology, implications, and other important details. Research proposals are the framework of your research and are used to obtain approvals or grants to conduct the study from various committees or organizations. Consequently, research proposals should convince readers of your study’s credibility, accuracy, achievability, practicality, and reproducibility.   

With research proposals , researchers usually aim to persuade the readers, funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors to approve the proposal. To achieve this, the report should be well structured with the objectives written in clear, understandable language devoid of jargon. A well-organized research proposal conveys to the readers or evaluators that the writer has thought out the research plan meticulously and has the resources to ensure timely completion.  

Purpose of Research Proposals  

A research proposal is a sales pitch and therefore should be detailed enough to convince your readers, who could be supervisors, ethics committees, universities, etc., that what you’re proposing has merit and is feasible . Research proposals can help students discuss their dissertation with their faculty or fulfill course requirements and also help researchers obtain funding. A well-structured proposal instills confidence among readers about your ability to conduct and complete the study as proposed.  

Research proposals can be written for several reasons:³  

• To describe the importance of research in the specific topic  
• Address any potential challenges you may encounter  
• Showcase knowledge in the field and your ability to conduct a study  
• Apply for a role at a research institute  
• Convince a research supervisor or university that your research can satisfy the requirements of a degree program  
• Highlight the importance of your research to organizations that may sponsor your project  
• Identify implications of your project and how it can benefit the audience  

What Goes in a Research Proposal?    

Research proposals should aim to answer the three basic questions—what, why, and how.  

The What question should be answered by describing the specific subject being researched. It should typically include the objectives, the cohort details, and the location or setting.  

The Why question should be answered by describing the existing scenario of the subject, listing unanswered questions, identifying gaps in the existing research, and describing how your study can address these gaps, along with the implications and significance.  

The How question should be answered by describing the proposed research methodology, data analysis tools expected to be used, and other details to describe your proposed methodology.   

Research Proposal Example  

Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject.  

Structure of a Research Proposal  

If you want to know how to make a research proposal impactful, include the following components:¹  

1. Introduction  

This section provides a background of the study, including the research topic, what is already known about it and the gaps, and the significance of the proposed research.  

2. Literature review  

This section contains descriptions of all the previous relevant studies pertaining to the research topic. Every study cited should be described in a few sentences, starting with the general studies to the more specific ones. This section builds on the understanding gained by readers in the Introduction section and supports it by citing relevant prior literature, indicating to readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject.  

3. Objectives  

Once the background and gaps in the research topic have been established, authors must now state the aims of the research clearly. Hypotheses should be mentioned here. This section further helps readers understand what your study’s specific goals are.  

4. Research design and methodology  

Here, authors should clearly describe the methods they intend to use to achieve their proposed objectives. Important components of this section include the population and sample size, data collection and analysis methods and duration, statistical analysis software, measures to avoid bias (randomization, blinding), etc.  

5. Ethical considerations  

This refers to the protection of participants’ rights, such as the right to privacy, right to confidentiality, etc. Researchers need to obtain informed consent and institutional review approval by the required authorities and mention this clearly for transparency.  

6. Budget/funding  

Researchers should prepare their budget and include all expected expenditures. An additional allowance for contingencies such as delays should also be factored in.  

7. Appendices  

This section typically includes information that supports the research proposal and may include informed consent forms, questionnaires, participant information, measurement tools, etc.  

8. Citations  

Important Tips for Writing a Research Proposal  

Writing a research proposal begins much before the actual task of writing. Planning the research proposal structure and content is an important stage, which if done efficiently, can help you seamlessly transition into the writing stage. 3,5  

The Planning Stage  

• Manage your time efficiently. Plan to have the draft version ready at least two weeks before your deadline and the final version at least two to three days before the deadline.
• What is the primary objective of your research?  
• Will your research address any existing gap?  
• What is the impact of your proposed research?  
• Do people outside your field find your research applicable in other areas?  
• If your research is unsuccessful, would there still be other useful research outcomes?  

  The Writing Stage  

• Create an outline with main section headings that are typically used.  
• Focus only on writing and getting your points across without worrying about the format of the research proposal , grammar, punctuation, etc. These can be fixed during the subsequent passes. Add details to each section heading you created in the beginning.   
• Ensure your sentences are concise and use plain language. A research proposal usually contains about 2,000 to 4,000 words or four to seven pages.  
• Don’t use too many technical terms and abbreviations assuming that the readers would know them. Define the abbreviations and technical terms.  
• Ensure that the entire content is readable. Avoid using long paragraphs because they affect the continuity in reading. Break them into shorter paragraphs and introduce some white space for readability.  
• Focus on only the major research issues and cite sources accordingly. Don’t include generic information or their sources in the literature review.  
• Proofread your final document to ensure there are no grammatical errors so readers can enjoy a seamless, uninterrupted read.  
• Use academic, scholarly language because it brings formality into a document.  
• Ensure that your title is created using the keywords in the document and is neither too long and specific nor too short and general.  
• Cite all sources appropriately to avoid plagiarism.  
• Make sure that you follow guidelines, if provided. This includes rules as simple as using a specific font or a hyphen or en dash between numerical ranges.  
• Ensure that you’ve answered all questions requested by the evaluating authority.  

Key Takeaways   

Here’s a summary of the main points about research proposals discussed in the previous sections:  

• A research proposal is a document that outlines the details of a proposed study and is created by researchers to submit to evaluators who could be research institutions, universities, faculty, etc.  
• Research proposals are usually about 2,000-4,000 words long, but this depends on the evaluating authority’s guidelines.  
• A good research proposal ensures that you’ve done your background research and assessed the feasibility of the research.  
• Research proposals have the following main sections—introduction, literature review, objectives, methodology, ethical considerations, and budget.  

Frequently Asked Questions  

Q1. How is a research proposal evaluated?  

A1. In general, most evaluators, including universities, broadly use the following criteria to evaluate research proposals . 6  

• Significance —Does the research address any important subject or issue, which may or may not be specific to the evaluator or university?  
• Content and design —Is the proposed methodology appropriate to answer the research question? Are the objectives clear and well aligned with the proposed methodology?  
• Sample size and selection —Is the target population or cohort size clearly mentioned? Is the sampling process used to select participants randomized, appropriate, and free of bias?  
• Timing —Are the proposed data collection dates mentioned clearly? Is the project feasible given the specified resources and timeline?  
• Data management and dissemination —Who will have access to the data? What is the plan for data analysis?  

Q2. What is the difference between the Introduction and Literature Review sections in a research proposal ?  

A2. The Introduction or Background section in a research proposal sets the context of the study by describing the current scenario of the subject and identifying the gaps and need for the research. A Literature Review, on the other hand, provides references to all prior relevant literature to help corroborate the gaps identified and the research need.  

Q3. How long should a research proposal be?  

A3. Research proposal lengths vary with the evaluating authority like universities or committees and also the subject. Here’s a table that lists the typical research proposal lengths for a few universities.  

Q4. What are the common mistakes to avoid in a research proposal ?  

A4. Here are a few common mistakes that you must avoid while writing a research proposal . 7  

• No clear objectives: Objectives should be clear, specific, and measurable for the easy understanding among readers.  
• Incomplete or unconvincing background research: Background research usually includes a review of the current scenario of the particular industry and also a review of the previous literature on the subject. This helps readers understand your reasons for undertaking this research because you identified gaps in the existing research.  
• Overlooking project feasibility: The project scope and estimates should be realistic considering the resources and time available.   
• Neglecting the impact and significance of the study: In a research proposal , readers and evaluators look for the implications or significance of your research and how it contributes to the existing research. This information should always be included.  
• Unstructured format of a research proposal : A well-structured document gives confidence to evaluators that you have read the guidelines carefully and are well organized in your approach, consequently affirming that you will be able to undertake the research as mentioned in your proposal.  
• Ineffective writing style: The language used should be formal and grammatically correct. If required, editors could be consulted, including AI-based tools such as Paperpal , to refine the research proposal structure and language.  

Thus, a research proposal is an essential document that can help you promote your research and secure funds and grants for conducting your research. Consequently, it should be well written in clear language and include all essential details to convince the evaluators of your ability to conduct the research as proposed.  

This article has described all the important components of a research proposal and has also provided tips to improve your writing style. We hope all these tips will help you write a well-structured research proposal to ensure receipt of grants or any other purpose.  

References  

• Sudheesh K, Duggappa DR, Nethra SS. How to write a research proposal? Indian J Anaesth. 2016;60(9):631-634. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037942/  
• Writing research proposals. Harvard College Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships. Harvard University. Accessed July 14, 2024. https://uraf.harvard.edu/apply-opportunities/app-components/essays/research-proposals  
• What is a research proposal? Plus how to write one. Indeed website. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-proposal  
• Research proposal template. University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/MediaLibraries/URMCMedia/pediatrics/research/documents/Research-proposal-Template.pdf  
• Tips for successful proposal writing. Johns Hopkins University. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://research.jhu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Tips-for-Successful-Proposal-Writing.pdf  
• Formal review of research proposals. Cornell University. Accessed July 18, 2024. https://irp.dpb.cornell.edu/surveys/survey-assessment-review-group/research-proposals  
• 7 Mistakes you must avoid in your research proposal. Aveksana (via LinkedIn). Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/7-mistakes-you-must-avoid-your-research-proposal-aveksana-cmtwf/  

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How to Write Your Research Paper in APA Format

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How to Write a Research Paper [Steps & Examples]

As a student, you are often required to complete numerous academic tasks, which can demand a lot of extra effort. Writing a research paper is one of these tasks. If researching for the topic isn't challenging enough, writing it down in a specific format adds another layer of difficulty. Having gone through this myself, I want to help you have a smoother journey in writing your research paper. I'll guide you through everything you need to know about writing a research paper, including how to write a research paper and all the necessary factors you need to consider while writing one.

Order for Preparation of your research paper

Before beginning your research paper, start planning how you will organize your paper. Follow the specific order I have laid out to ensure you assemble everything correctly, cover all necessary components, and write more effectively. This method will help you avoid missing important elements and improve the overall quality of your paper.

Figures and Tables

Assemble all necessary visual aids to support your data and findings. Ensure they are labeled correctly and referenced appropriately in your text.

Detail the procedures and techniques used in your research. This section should be thorough enough to allow others to replicate your study.

Summarize the findings of your research without interpretation. Use figures and tables to illustrate your data clearly.

Interpret the results, discussing their implications and how they relate to your research question. Address any limitations and suggest areas for future research.

Summarize the key points of your research, restating the significance of your findings and their broader impact.

Introduction

Introduce the topic, provide background information, and state the research problem or hypothesis. Explain the purpose and scope of your study.

Write a concise summary of your research, including the objective, methods, results, and conclusion. Keep it brief and to the point.

Create a clear and informative title that accurately reflects the content and focus of your research paper.

Identify key terms related to your research that will help others find your paper in searches.

Acknowledgements

Thank those who contributed to your research, including funding sources, advisors, and any other significant supporters.

Compile a complete list of all sources cited in your paper, formatted according to the required citation style. Ensure every reference is accurate and complete.

Types of Research Papers

There are multiple types of research papers, each with distinct characteristics, purposes, and structures. Knowing which type of research paper is required for your assignment is crucial, as each demands different preparation and writing strategies. Here, we will delve into three prominent types: argumentative, analytical, and compare and contrast papers. We will discuss their characteristics, suitability, and provide detailed examples to illustrate their application.

A.Argumentative Papers

Characteristics:

An argumentative or persuasive paper is designed to present a balanced view of a controversial issue, but ultimately aims to persuade the reader to adopt the writer's perspective. The key characteristics of this type of paper include:

Purpose: The primary goal is to convince the reader to support a particular stance on an issue. This is achieved by presenting arguments, evidence, and refuting opposing viewpoints.

Structure: Typically structured into an introduction, a presentation of both sides of the issue, a refutation of the opposing arguments, and a conclusion that reinforces the writer’s position.

Tone: While the tone should be logical and factual, it should not be overly emotional. Arguments must be supported with solid evidence, such as statistics, expert opinions, and factual data.

Suitability:

Argumentative papers are suitable for topics that have clear, opposing viewpoints. They are often used in debates, policy discussions, and essays aimed at influencing public opinion or academic discourse.

Topic: "Should governments implement universal basic income?"

Pro Side: Universal basic income provides financial security, reduces poverty, and can lead to a more equitable society.

Con Side: It could discourage work, lead to higher government expenditure, and might not be a sustainable long-term solution.

Argument: After presenting both sides, the paper would argue that the benefits of reducing poverty and financial insecurity outweigh the potential drawbacks, using evidence from various studies and real-world examples.

Writing Tips:

Clearly articulate your position on the issue from the beginning.

Present balanced arguments by including credible sources that support both sides.

Refute counterarguments effectively with logical reasoning and evidence.

Maintain a factual and logical tone, avoiding excessive emotional appeals.

B.Analytical Papers

An analytical research paper is focused on breaking down a topic into its core components, examining various perspectives, and drawing conclusions based on this analysis. The main characteristics include:

Purpose: To pose a research question, collect data from various sources, analyze different viewpoints, and synthesize the information to arrive at a personal conclusion.

Structure: Includes an introduction with a clear research question, a literature review that summarizes existing research, a detailed analysis, and a conclusion that summarizes findings.

Tone: Objective and neutral, avoiding personal bias or opinion. The focus is on data and logical analysis.

Analytical research papers are ideal for topics that require detailed examination and evaluation of various aspects. They are common in disciplines such as social sciences, humanities, and natural sciences, where deep analysis of existing research is crucial.

Topic: "The impact of social media on mental health."

Research Question: How does social media usage affect mental well-being among teenagers?

Analysis: Examine studies that show both positive (e.g., social support) and negative (e.g., anxiety and depression) impacts of social media. Analyze the methodologies and findings of these studies.

Conclusion: Based on the analysis, conclude whether the overall impact is more beneficial or harmful, remaining neutral and presenting evidence without personal bias.

Maintain an objective and neutral tone throughout the paper.

Synthesize information from multiple sources, ensuring a comprehensive analysis.

Develop a clear thesis based on the findings from your analysis.

Avoid inserting personal opinions or biases.

C.Compare and Contrast Papers

Compare and contrast papers are used to analyze the similarities and differences between two or more subjects. The key characteristics include:

Purpose: To identify and examine the similarities and differences between two or more subjects, providing a comprehensive understanding of their relationship.

Structure: Can be organized in two ways:

Point-by-Point: Each paragraph covers a specific point of comparison or contrast.

Subject-by-Subject: Each subject is discussed separately, followed by a comparison or contrast.

Tone: Informative and balanced, aiming to provide a thorough and unbiased comparison.

Compare and contrast papers are suitable for topics where it is important to understand the distinctions and similarities between elements. They are commonly used in literature, history, and various comparative studies.

Topic: "Compare and contrast the leadership styles of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X."

Comparison Points: Philosophies (non-violence vs. militant activism), methods (peaceful protests vs. more radical approaches), and impacts on the Civil Rights Movement.

Analysis: Describe each leader's philosophy and method, then analyze how these influenced their effectiveness and legacy.

Conclusion: Summarize the key similarities and differences, and discuss how both leaders contributed uniquely to the movement.

Provide equal and balanced coverage to each subject.

Use clear criteria for comparison, ensuring logical and coherent analysis.

Highlight both similarities and differences, ensuring a nuanced understanding of the subjects.

Maintain an informative tone, focusing on objective analysis rather than personal preference.

How to Write A Research Paper [Higher Efficiency & Better Results]

Conduct Preliminary Research

Before we get started with the research, it's important to gather relevant information related to it. This process, also known as the primary research method, helps researchers gain preliminary knowledge about the topic and identify research gaps. Whenever I begin researching a topic, I usually utilize Google and Google Scholar. Another excellent resource for conducting primary research is campus libraries, as they provide a wealth of great articles that can assist with your research.

Now, let's see how WPS Office and AIPal can be great research partners:

Let's say that I have some PDFs which I have gathered from different sources. With WPS Office, these PDFs can be directly uploaded not just to extract key points but also to interact with the PDF with special help from WPS AI.

Step 1: Let's open the PDF article or research paper that we have downloaded on WPS Office.

Step 2: Now, click on the WPS AI widget at the top right corner of the screen.

Step 3: This will open the WPS PDF AI pane on the right side of the screen. Click on "Upload".

Step 4: Once the upload is complete, WPS PDF AI will return with the key points from the PDF article, which can then be copied to a fresh new document on WPS Writer.

Step 5: To interact further with the document, click on the "Inquiry" tab to talk with WPS AI and get more information on the contents of the PDF.

Research is incomplete without a Google search, but what exactly should you search for? AIPal can help you with these answers. AIPal is a Chrome extension that can help researchers make their Google searches and interactions with Chrome more effective and efficient. If you haven't installed AIPal on Chrome yet, go ahead and download the extension; it's completely free to use:

Step 1: Let's search for a term on Google related to our research.

Step 2: An AIPal widget will appear right next to the Google search bar, click on it.

Step 3: Upon clicking it, an AIPal window will pop up. In this window, you will find a more refined answer for your searched term, along with links most relevant to your search, providing a more refined search experience.

WPS AI can also be used to extract more information with the help of WPS Writer.

Step 1: We might have some information saved in a Word document, either from lectures or during preliminary research. We can use WPS AI within Writer to gain more insights.

Step 2: Select the entire text you want to summarize or understand better.

Step 3: Once the text is selected, a hover menu will appear. Click on the "WPS AI" icon in this menu.

Step 4: From the list of options, click on "Explain" to understand the content more deeply, or click on "Summarize" to shorten the paragraph.

Step 5: The results will be displayed in a small WPS AI window.

Develop the Thesis statement

To develop a strong thesis statement, start by formulating a central question your paper will address. For example, if your topic is about the impact of social media on mental health, your thesis statement might be:

"Social media use has a detrimental effect on mental health by increasing anxiety, depression, and loneliness among teenagers."

This statement is concise, contentious, and sets the stage for your research. With WPS AI, you can use the "Improve" feature to refine your thesis statement, ensuring it is clear, coherent, and impactful.

Write the First draft

Begin your first draft by focusing on maintaining forward momentum and clearly organizing your thoughts. Follow your outline as a guide, but be flexible if new ideas emerge. Here's a brief outline to get you started:

Using WPS AI’s "Make Longer" feature, you can quickly elaborate key ideas and points of your studies and articles into a descriptive format to include in your draft, saving time and ensuring clarity.

Compose Introduction, Body and Conclusion paragraphs

When writing a research paper, it’s essential to transform your key points into detailed, descriptive paragraphs. WPS AI can help you streamline this process by enhancing your key points, ensuring each section of your paper is well-developed and coherent. Here’s how you can use WPS AI to compose your introduction, body, and conclusion paragraphs:

Let's return to the draft and start composing our introduction. The introduction should provide the background of the research paper and introduce readers to what the research paper will explore.

If your introduction feels too brief or lacks depth, use WPS AI’s "Make Longer" feature to expand on key points, adding necessary details and enhancing the overall narrative.

Once the introduction is completed, the next step is to start writing the body paragraphs and the conclusion of our research paper. Remember, the body paragraphs will incorporate everything about your research: methodologies, challenges, results, and takeaways.

If this paragraph is too lengthy or repetitive, WPS AI’s "Make Shorter" feature can help you condense it without losing essential information.

Write the Second Draft

In the second draft, refine your arguments, ensure logical flow, and check for clarity. Focus on eliminating any unnecessary information, ensuring each paragraph supports your thesis statement, and improving transitions between ideas. Incorporate feedback from peers or advisors, and ensure all citations are accurate and properly formatted. The second draft should be more polished and coherent, presenting your research in a clear and compelling manner.

WPS AI’s "Improve Writing" feature can be particularly useful here to enhance the overall quality and readability of your paper.

WPS Spellcheck can assist you in correcting spelling and grammatical errors, ensuring your paper is polished and professional. This tool helps you avoid common mistakes and enhances the readability of your paper, making a significant difference in the overall quality.

Bonus Tips: How to Get Inspiration for your Research Paper- WPS AI

WPS Office is a phenomenal office suite that students find to be a major blessing. Not only is it a free office suite equipped with advanced features that make it competitive in the market, but it also includes a powerful AI that automates and enhances many tasks, including writing a research paper. In addition to improving readability with its AI Proofreader tool, WPS AI offers two features, "Insight" and "Inquiry", that can help you gather information and inspiration for your research paper:

Insight Feature:

The Insight feature provides deep insights and information on various topics and fields. It analyzes literature to extract key viewpoints, trends, and research directions. For instance, if you're writing a research paper on the impact of social media on mental health, you can use the Insight feature to gather a comprehensive overview of the latest studies, key arguments, and emerging trends in this field. This helps you build a solid foundation for your paper and ensure you are covering all relevant aspects.

Inquiry Feature:

The Inquiry feature allows you to ask specific questions related to your research topic. This helps you gather necessary background information and refine your research focus effectively. For example, if you need detailed information on how social media usage affects teenagers' self-esteem, you can use the Inquiry feature to ask targeted questions and receive relevant answers based on the latest research.

FAQs about writing a research paper

1. can any source be used for academic research.

No, it's essential to use credible and relevant sources. Here is why:

Developing a Strong Argument: Your research paper relies on evidence to substantiate its claims. Using unreliable sources can undermine your argument and harm the credibility of your paper.

Avoiding Inaccurate Information: The internet is abundant with data, but not all sources can be considered reliable. Credible sources guarantee accuracy.

2. How can I avoid plagiarism?

To avoid plagiarism, follow these steps:

Keep Records of Your Sources: Maintain a record of all the sources you use while researching. This helps you remember where you found specific ideas or phrases and ensures proper attribution.

Quote and Paraphrase Correctly: When writing a paper, use quotation marks for exact words from a source and cite them properly. When paraphrasing, restate the idea in your own words and include a citation to acknowledge the original source.

Utilize a Plagiarism Checker: Use a plagiarism detection tool before submitting your paper. This will help identify unintentional plagiarism, ensuring your paper is original and properly referenced.

3. How can I cite sources properly?

Adhere to the citation style guide (e.g., APA, MLA) specified by your instructor or journal. Properly citing all sources both within the text and in the bibliography or references section is essential for maintaining academic integrity and providing clear credit to the original authors. This practice also helps readers locate and verify the sources you've used in your research.

4. How long should a research paper be?

The length of a research paper depends on its topic and specific requirements. Generally, research papers vary between 4,000 to 6,000 words, with shorter papers around 2,000 words and longer ones exceeding 10,000 words. Adhering to the length requirements provided for academic assignments is essential. More intricate subjects or extensive research often require more thorough explanations, which can impact the overall length of the paper.

Write Your Research Paper with the Comfort of Using WPS Office

Writing a research paper involves managing numerous complicated tasks, such as ensuring the correct formatting, not missing any crucial information, and having all your data ready. The process of how to write a research paper is inherently challenging. However, if you are a student using WPS Office, the task becomes significantly simpler. WPS Office, especially with the introduction of WPS AI, provides all the resources you need to write the perfect research paper. Download WPS Office today and discover how it can transform your research paper writing experience for the better.

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Machine Learning Research Requires Smaller Sample Sizes than Previously Thought

In this post, authors Louis Hickman, Josh Liff, Caleb Rottman, and Charles Calderwood outline the inspiration behind their recently published academic paper, “The Effects of the Training Sample Size, Ground Truth Reliability, and NLP Method on Language-Based Automatic Interview Scores’ Psychometric Properties ,” found in Organizational Research Methods .

Natural language processing (NLP) and supervised machine learning (ML) are increasingly used to score latent constructs from natural language text in both research and practice (e.g., personnel selection). However, many practitioners, researchers, and reviewers assume that ML requires thousands of observations. Our research aimed to empirically address this assumption, given that editors and reviewers have previously pressed us to obtain larger sample sizes.

Thus, we designed an experiment to understand how training sample size, NLP method, and reliability of the target variable affect the convergent validity and test-retest reliability of ML scores in the context of automatically scored interviews. We were surprised to find that for most target variables, neither validity nor reliability increased much when the ML training data included at least 500 observations. Researchers can pursue projects on NLP and ML with just hundreds of observations, thereby significantly lowering the barrier to entry in this emerging area of research.

Researchers and practitioners are already using large language models (LLMs), such as those that power ChatGPT, to score psychological constructs from text with little (few-shot) to no (zero-shot) additional training data. Many organizations will continue to opt for traditional, supervised ML models for scoring open-ended content because they control the model and its training data and can adjust the model to improve fairness. On the other hand, some LLMs have not shared their training data, no known methods can reduce bias in their outputs, and most organizations do not have the resources ($$$) to train an LLM from scratch.

LLMs have lowered the barrier for getting started in this area of research, as they can help researchers and practitioners write and learn how to code. Combining NLP with ML is a powerful way to capitalize on the voluminous amounts of unstructured data relevant to organizations. Additional guidance and example code for getting started is available in the following publications.

Hickman, L., Saef, R., Ng, V., Tay, L., Woo, S. E., & Bosch, N. (2021). Developing and evaluating language-based machine learning algorithms for inferring applicant personality in video interviews. Human Resource Management Journal , advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/1748-8583.12356

Hickman, L., Thapa, S., Tay, L., Cao, M., & Srinivasan, P. (2022). Text preprocessing for text mining in organizational research: Review and recommendations. Organizational Research Methods , 25 (1), 114-146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428120971683

Rottman, C., Gardner, C., Liff, J., Mondragon, N., & Zuloaga, L. (2023). New strategies for addressing the diversity–validity dilemma with big data. Journal of Applied Psychology, 108 (9), 1425–1444. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0001084

Louis Hickman, Josh Liff, Caleb Rottman, and Charles Calderwood

Louis Hickman (pictured) is an assistant professor of industrial-organizational psychology at Virginia Tech. He received his PhD from Purdue University and has research interests in applications of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and natural language processing in organizations, including addressing concerns about algorithmic bias and how these technologies influence workplace behavior. Josh Liff (PhD) is the director of research & development at HireVue, where he leads the organization's industrial-organizational psychology research team to guide the development and validation of next-generation assessment solutions that blend the state-of-the-art in industrial-organizational psychology with data science. Caleb Rottman (PhD) is the senior data scientist and technical lead at HireVue and has over 10 years of research experience in algorithms, statistics, data science, and applied mathematics. Charles Calderwood is an associate professor of industrial-organizational psychology at Virginia Tech. He received his PhD in psychology from the Georgia Institute of Technology and has research and methodological interests in occupational health, commuting, and dynamic multilevel statistical techniques.

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Dr. Michael Andreae’s Manuscript Wins Best Paper of the Year Award

Anesthesiology department, department of anesthesiology research.

The University of Utah School of Medicine Department of Anesthesiology has research opportunities for students and a research grant program for our academic faculty.

We are thrilled to announce that Dr. Michael Andreae and his research team have been honored with the Best Paper of the Year award by the Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making for their manuscript titled, "Adapting Cognitive Task Analysis Methods for Use in a Large Sample Simulation Study of High-Risk Healthcare Events." This prestigious award recognizes their exceptional work in the field of medical decision-making.

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Archaeology in space: The Sampling Quadrangle Assemblages Research Experiment (SQuARE) on the International Space Station. Report 1: Squares 03 and 05

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Department of Art, Chapman University, Orange, CA, United States of America, Space Engineering Research Center, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA, United States of America

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of History, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia

Roles Software, Writing – original draft

Roles Investigation, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Archaeology Research Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America

• Justin St. P. Walsh, 
• Shawn Graham, 
• Alice C. Gorman, 
• Chantal Brousseau, 
• Salma Abdullah

• Published: August 7, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229
• Reader Comments

Between January and March 2022, crew aboard the International Space Station (ISS) performed the first archaeological fieldwork in space, the Sampling Quadrangle Assemblages Research Experiment (SQuARE). The experiment aimed to: (1) develop a new understanding of how humans adapt to life in an environmental context for which we are not evolutionarily adapted, using evidence from the observation of material culture; (2) identify disjunctions between planned and actual usage of facilities on a space station; (3) develop and test techniques that enable archaeological research at a distance; and (4) demonstrate the relevance of social science methods and perspectives for improving life in space. In this article, we describe our methodology, which involves a creative re-imagining of a long-standing sampling practice for the characterization of a site, the shovel test pit. The ISS crew marked out six sample locations (“squares”) around the ISS and documented them through daily photography over a 60-day period. Here we present the results from two of the six squares: an equipment maintenance area, and an area near exercise equipment and the latrine. Using the photographs and an innovative webtool, we identified 5,438 instances of items, labeling them by type and function. We then performed chronological analyses to determine how the documented areas were actually used. Our results show differences between intended and actual use, with storage the most common function of the maintenance area, and personal hygiene activities most common in an undesignated area near locations for exercise and waste.

Citation: Walsh JSP, Graham S, Gorman AC, Brousseau C, Abdullah S (2024) Archaeology in space: The Sampling Quadrangle Assemblages Research Experiment (SQuARE) on the International Space Station. Report 1: Squares 03 and 05. PLoS ONE 19(8): e0304229. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229

Editor: Peter F. Biehl, University of California Santa Cruz, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Received: March 9, 2024; Accepted: May 7, 2024; Published: August 7, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Walsh et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: JW was the recipient of funding from Chapman University’s Office of Research and Sponsored Programs to support the activities of Axiom Space as implementation partner for the research presented in this article. There are no associated grant numbers for this financial support. Axiom Space served in the role of a contractor hired by Chapman University for the purpose of overseeing logistics relating to our research. In-kind support in the form of ISS crew time and access to the space station’s facilities, also awarded to JW from the ISS National Laboratory, resulted from an unsolicited proposal, and therefore there is no opportunity title or number associated with our work. No salary was received by any of the investigators as a result of the grant support. No additional external funding was received for this study.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The International Space Station Archaeological Project (ISSAP) aims to fill a gap in social science investigation into the human experience of long-duration spaceflight [ 1 – 3 ]. As the largest, most intensively inhabited space station to date, with over 270 visitors from 23 countries during more than 23 years of continuous habitation, the International Space Station (ISS) is the ideal example of a new kind of spacefaring community—“a microsociety in a miniworld” [ 4 ]. While it is possible to interview crew members about their experiences, the value of an approach focused on material culture is that it allows identification of longer-term patterns of behaviors and associations that interlocutors are unable or even unwilling to articulate. In this respect, we are inspired by previous examples of contemporary archaeology such as the Tucson Garbage Project and the Undocumented Migration Project [ 5 – 7 ]. We also follow previous discussions of material culture in space contexts that highlight the social and cultural features of space technology [ 8 , 9 ].

Our primary goal is to identify how humans adapt to life in a new environment for which our species has not evolved, one characterized by isolation, confinement, and especially microgravity. Microgravity introduces opportunities, such as the ability to move and work in 360 degrees, and to carry out experiments impossible in full Earth gravity, but also limitations, as unrestrained objects float away. The most routine activities carried out on Earth become the focus of intense planning and technological intervention in microgravity. By extension, our project also seeks to develop archaeological techniques that permit the study of other habitats in remote, extreme, or dangerous environments [ 10 , 11 ]. Since it is too costly and difficult to visit our archaeological site in person, we have to creatively re-imagine traditional archaeological methods to answer key questions. To date, our team has studied crew-created visual displays [ 12 , 13 ], meanings and processes associated with items returned to Earth [ 14 ], distribution of different population groups around the various modules [ 15 ], and the development of machine learning (ML) computational techniques to extract data about people and places, all from historic photographs of life on the ISS [ 16 ].

From January to March 2022, we developed a new dataset through the first archaeological work conducted off-Earth. We documented material culture in six locations around the ISS habitat, using daily photography taken by the crew which we then annotated and studied as evidence for changes in archaeological assemblages of material culture over time. This was the first time such data had been captured in a way that allowed statistical analysis. Here, we present the data and results from Squares 03 and 05, the first two sample locations to be completed.

Materials and methods

Square concept and planning.

Gorman proposed the concept behind the investigation, deriving it from one of the most traditional terrestrial archaeological techniques, the shovel test pit. This method is used to understand the overall characteristics of a site quickly through sampling. A site is mapped with a grid of one-meter squares. Some of the squares are selected for initial excavation to understand the likely spatial and chronological distribution of features across the entire site. In effect, the technique is a way to sample a known percentage of the entire site systematically. In the ISS application of this method, we documented a notional stratigraphy through daily photography, rather than excavation.

Historic photography is a key dataset for the International Space Station Archaeological Project. Tens of thousands of images have been made available to us, either through publication [ 17 ], or through an arrangement with the ISS Research Integration Office, which supplied previously unpublished images from the first eight years of the station’s habitation. These photographs are informative about the relationships between people, places, and objects over time in the ISS. However, they were taken randomly (from an archaeological perspective) and released only according to NASA’s priorities and rules. Most significantly, they were not made with the purpose of answering archaeological questions. By contrast, the photographs taken during the present investigation were systematic, representative of a defined proportion of the habitat’s area, and targeted towards capturing archaeology’s primary evidence: material culture. We were interested in how objects move around individual spaces and the station, what these movements revealed about crew adherence to terrestrial planning, and the creative use of material culture to make the laboratory-like interior of the ISS more habitable.

Access to the field site was gained through approval of a proposal submitted to the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space (also known as the ISS National Laboratory [ISS NL]). Upon acceptance, Axiom Space was assigned as the Implementation Partner for carriage of the experiment according to standard procedure. No other permits were required for this work.

Experiment design

Since our work envisioned one-meter sample squares, and recognizing the use of acronyms as a persistent element of spacefaring culture, we named our payload the Sampling Quadrangle Assemblages Research Experiment (SQuARE). Permission from the ISS NL to conduct SQuARE was contingent on using equipment that was already on board the space station. SQuARE required only five items: a camera, a wide-angle lens, adhesive tape (for marking the boundaries of the sample locations), a ruler (for scale), and a color calibration card (for post-processing of the images). All of these were already present on the ISS.

Walsh performed tests on the walls of a terrestrial art gallery to assess the feasibility of creating perfect one-meter squares in microgravity. He worked on a vertical surface, using the Pythagorean theorem to determine where the corners should be located. The only additional items used for these tests were two metric measuring tapes and a pencil for marking the wall (these were also already on the ISS). While it was possible to make a square this way, it also became clear that at least two people were needed to manage holding the tape measures in position while marking the points for the corners. This was not possible in the ISS context.

Walsh and Gorman identified seven locations for the placement of squares. Five of these were in the US Orbital Segment (USOS, consisting of American, European, and Japanese modules) and two in the Russian Orbital Segment. Unfortunately, tense relations between the US and Russian governments meant we could only document areas in the USOS. The five locations were (with their SQuARE designations):

• 01—an experimental rack on the forward wall, starboard end, of the Japanese Experiment Module
• 02—an experimental rack on the forward wall, port end, of the European laboratory module Columbus
• 03—the starboard Maintenance Work Area (workstation) in the US Node 2 module
• 04—the wall area “above” (according to typical crew body orientation) the galley table in the US Node 1 module
• 05—the aft wall, center location, of the US Node 3 module

Our square selection encompassed different modules and activities, including work and leisure. We also asked the crew to select a sixth sample location based on their understanding of the experiment and what they thought would be interesting to document. They chose a workstation on the port wall of the US laboratory module, at the aft end, which they described in a debriefing following their return to Earth in June 2022 as “our central command post, like our shared office situation in the lab.” Results from the four squares not included here will appear in future publications.

Walsh worked with NASA staff to determine payload procedures, including precise locations for the placement of the tape that would mark the square boundaries. The squares could not obstruct other facilities or experiments, so (unlike in terrestrial excavations, where string is typically used to demarcate trench boundaries) only the corners of each square were marked, not the entire perimeter. We used Kapton tape due to its bright yellow-orange color, which aided visibility for the crew taking photographs and for us when cropping the images. In practice, due to space constraints, the procedures that could actually be performed by crew in the ISS context, and the need to avoid interfering with other ongoing experiments, none of the locations actually measured one square meter or had precise 90° corners like a trench on Earth.

On January 14, 2022, NASA astronaut Kayla Barron set up the sample locations, marking the beginning of archaeological work in space ( S1 Movie ). For 30 days, starting on January 21, a crew member took photos of the sample locations at approximately the same time each day; the process was repeated at a random time each day for a second 30-day period to eliminate biases. Photography ended on March 21, 2022. The crew were instructed not to move any items prior to taking the photographs. Walsh led image management, including color and barrel distortion correction, fixing the alignment of each image, and cropping them to the boundaries of the taped corners.

Data processing—Item tagging, statistics, visualizations

We refer to each day’s photo as a “context” by analogy with chronologically-linked assemblages of artifacts and installations at terrestrial archaeological sites ( S1 and S2 Datasets). As previously noted, each context represented a moment roughly 24 hours distant from the previous one, showing evidence of changes in that time. ISS mission planners attempted to schedule the activity at the same time in the first month, but there were inevitable changes due to contingencies. Remarkably, the average time between contexts in Phase 1 was an almost-perfect 24h 0m 13s. Most of the Phase 1 photos were taken between 1200 and 1300 GMT (the time zone in which life on the ISS is organized). In Phase 2, the times were much more variable, but the average time between contexts during this period was still 23h 31m 45s. The earliest Phase 2 photo was taken at 0815 GMT, and the latest at 2101. We did not identify any meaningful differences between results from the two phases.

Since the “test pits” were formed of images rather than soil matrices, we needed a tool to capture information about the identity, nature, and location of every object. An open-source image annotator platform [ 18 ] mostly suited our needs. Brousseau rebuilt the platform to work within the constraints of our access to the imagery (turning it into a desktop tool with secure access to our private server), to permit a greater range of metadata to be added to each item or be imported, to autosave, and to export the resulting annotations. The tool also had to respect privacy and security limitations required by NASA.

The platform Brousseau developed and iterated was rechristened “Rocket-Anno” ( S1 File ). For each context photograph, the user draws an outline around every object, creating a polygon; each polygon is assigned a unique ID and the user provides the relevant descriptive information, using a controlled vocabulary developed for ISS material culture by Walsh and Gorman. Walsh and Abdullah used Rocket-Anno to tag the items in each context for Squares 03 and 05. Once all the objects were outlined for every context’s photograph, the tool exported a JSON file with all of the metadata for both the images themselves and all of the annotations, including the coordinate points for every polygon ( S3 Dataset ). We then developed Python code using Jupyter “notebooks” (an interactive development environment) that ingests the JSON file and generates dataframes for various facets of the data. Graham created a “core” notebook that exports summary statistics, calculates Brainerd-Robinson coefficients of similarity, and visualizes the changing use of the square over time by indicating use-areas based on artifact types and subtypes ( S2 File ). Walsh and Abdullah also wrote detailed square notes with context-by-context discussions and interpretations of features and patterns.

We asked NASA for access to the ISS Crew Planner, a computer system that shows each astronaut’s tasks in five-minute increments, to aid with our interpretation of contexts, but were denied. As a proxy, we use another, less detailed source: the ISS Daily Summary Reports (DSRs), published on a semi-regular basis by NASA on its website [ 19 ]. Any activities mentioned in the DSRs often must be connected with a context by inference. Therefore, our conclusions are likely less precise than if we had seen the Crew Planner, but they also more clearly represent the result of simply observing and interpreting the material culture record.

The crew during our sample period formed ISS Expedition 66 (October 2021-March 2022). They were responsible for the movement of objects in the sample squares as they carried out their daily tasks. The group consisted of two Russians affiliated with Roscosmos (the Russian space agency, 26%), one German belonging to the European Space Agency (ESA, 14%), and four Americans employed by NASA (57%). There were six men (86%) and one woman (14%), approximately equivalent to the historic proportions in the ISS population (84% and 16%, respectively). The Russian crew had their sleeping quarters at the aft end of the station, in the Zvezda module. The ESA astronaut slept in the European Columbus laboratory module. The four NASA crew slept in the US Node 2 module (see below). These arrangements emphasize the national character of discrete spaces around the ISS, also evident in our previous study of population distributions [ 15 ]. Both of the sample areas in this study were located in US modules.

Square 03 was placed in the starboard Maintenance Work Area (MWA, Fig 1 ), one of a pair of workstations located opposite one another in the center of the Node 2 module, with four crew berths towards the aft and a series of five ports for the docking of visiting crew/cargo vehicles and two modules on the forward end ( Fig 2 ). Node 2 (sometimes called “Harmony”) is a connector that links the US, Japanese, and European lab modules. According to prevailing design standards when the workstation was developed, an MWA “shall serve as the primary location for servicing and repair of maximum sized replacement unit/system components” [ 20 ]. Historic images published by NASA showing its use suggested that its primary function was maintenance of equipment and also scientific work that did not require a specific facility such as a centrifuge or furnace.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

An open crew berth is visible at right. The yellow dotted line indicates the boundaries of the sample area. Credit: NASA/ISSAP.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.g001

Credit: Tor Finseth, by permission, modified by Justin Walsh.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.g002

Square 03 measured 90.3 cm (top) x 87.8 (left) x 89.4 (bottom) x 87.6 (right), for an area of approximately 0.79 m 2 . Its primary feature was a blue metal panel with 40 square loop-type Velcro patches arranged in four rows of ten. During daily photography, many items were attached to the Velcro patches (or held by a clip or in a resealable bag which had its own hook-type Velcro). Above and below the blue panel were additional Velcro patches placed directly on the white plastic wall surface. These patches were white, in different sizes and shapes and irregularly arranged, indicating that they had been placed on the wall in response to different needs. Some were dirty, indicating long use. The patches below the blue panel were rarely used during the sample period, but the patches above were used frequently to hold packages of wet wipes, as well as resealable bags with electrostatic dispersion kits and other items. Outside the sample area, the primary features were a crew berth to the right, and a blue metal table attached to the wall below. This table, the primary component of the MWA, “provides a rigid surface on which to perform maintenance tasks,” according to NASA [ 21 ]. It is modular and can be oriented in several configurations, from flat against the wall to horizontal ( i . e ., perpendicular to the wall). A laptop to the left of the square occasionally showed information about work happening in the area.

In the 60 context photos of Square 03, we recorded 3,608 instances of items, an average of 60.1 (median = 60.5) per context. The lowest count was 24 in context 2 (where most of the wall was hidden from view behind an opaque storage bag), and the highest was 75 in both contexts 20 and 21. For comparison between squares, we can also calculate the item densities per m 2 . The average count was 76.1/m 2 (minimum = 30, maximum = 95). The count per context ( Fig 3(A)) began much lower than average in the first three contexts because of a portable glovebag and a stowage bag that obscured much of the sample square. It rose to an above-average level which was sustained (with the exception of contexts 11 and 12, which involved the appearance of another portable glovebag) until about context 43, when the count dipped again and the area seemed to show less use. Contexts 42–59 showed below-average numbers, as much as 20% lower than previously.

(a) Count of artifacts in Square 03 over time. (b) Proportions of artifacts by function in Square 03. Credit: Rao Hamza Ali.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.g003

74 types of items appeared at least once here, belonging to six categories: equipment (41%), office supplies (31%), electronic (17%), stowage (9%), media (1%), and food (<1%). To better understand the significance of various items in the archaeological record, we assigned them to functional categories ( Table 1 , Fig 3(B)) . 35% of artifacts were restraints, or items used for holding other things in place; 12% for tools; 9% for containers; 9% for writing items; 6% for audiovisual items; 6% for experimental items; 4% for lights; 4% for safety items; 4% for body maintenance; 4% for power items; 3% for computing items; 1% for labels; and less than 1% drinks. We could not identify a function for two percent of the items.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.t001

One of the project goals is understanding cultural adaptations to the microgravity environment. We placed special attention on “gravity surrogates,” pieces of (often simple) technology that are used in space to replicate the terrestrial experience of things staying where they are placed. Gravity surrogates include restraints and containers. It is quite noticeable that gravity surrogates comprise close to half of all items (44%) in Square 03, while the tools category, which might have been expected to be most prominent in an area designated for maintenance, is less than one-third as large (12%). Adding other groups associated with work, such as “experiment” and “light,” only brings the total to 22%.

Square 05 (Figs 2 and 4 ) was placed in a central location on the aft wall of the multipurpose Node 3 (“Tranquility”) module. This module does not include any specific science facilities. Instead, there are two large pieces of exercise equipment, the TVIS (Treadmill with Vibration Isolation Stabilization System, on the forward wall at the starboard end), and the ARED (Advanced Resistive Exercise Device, on the overhead wall at the port end). Use of the machines forms a significant part of crew activities, as they are required to exercise for two hours each day to counteract loss of muscle mass and bone density, and enable readjustment to terrestrial gravity on their return. The Waste and Hygiene Compartment (WHC), which includes the USOS latrine, is also here, on the forward wall in the center of the module, opposite Square 05. Finally, three modules are docked at Node 3’s port end. Most notable is the Cupola, a kind of miniature module on the nadir side with a panoramic window looking at Earth. This is the most popular leisure space for the crew, who often describe the hours they spend there. The Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM) is docked on the forward side, storing equipment, food, and trash. In previous expeditions, some crew described installing a curtain in the PMM to create a private space for changing clothes and performing body maintenance activities such as cleaning oneself [ 22 , 23 ], but it was unclear whether that continued to be its function during the expedition we observed. One crew member during our sample period posted a video on Instagram showing the PMM interior and their efforts to re-stow equipment in a bag [ 24 ]. The last space attached to Node 3 is an experimental inflatable module docked on the aft side, called the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM), which is used for storage of equipment.

The yellow dotted line indicates the boundaries of the sample area. The ARED machine is at the far upper right, on the overhead wall. The TVIS treadmill is outside this image to the left, on the forward wall. The WHC is directly behind the photographer. Credit: NASA/ISSAP.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.g004

Square 05 was on a mostly featureless wall, with a vertical handrail in the middle. Handrails are metal bars located throughout the ISS that are used by the crew to hold themselves in place or provide a point from which to propel oneself to another location. NASA’s most recent design standards acknowledge that “[t]hey also serve as convenient locations for temporary mounting, affixing, or restraint of loose equipment and as attachment points for equipment” [ 25 ]. The handrail in Square 05 was used as an impromptu object restraint when a resealable bag filled with other bags was squeezed between the handrail and the wall.

The Brine Processing Assembly (BPA), a white plastic box which separates water from other components of urine for treatment and re-introduction to the station’s drinkable water supply [ 26 ], was fixed to the wall outside the square boundaries at lower left. A bungee cord was attached to both sides of the box; the one on the right was connected at its other end to the handrail attachment bracket. Numerous items were attached to or wedged into this bungee cord during the survey, bringing “gravity” into being. A red plastic duct ran through the square from top center into the BPA. This duct led from the latrine via the overhead wall. About halfway through the survey period, in context 32, the duct was wrapped in Kapton tape. According to the DSR for that day, “the crew used duct tape [ sic ] to make a seal around the BPA exhaust to prevent odor permeation in the cabin” [ 27 ], revealing an aspect of the crew’s experience of this area that is captured only indirectly in the context photograph. Permanently attached to the wall were approximately 20 loop-type Velcro patches in many shapes and sizes, placed in a seemingly random pattern that likely indicates that they were put there at different times and for different reasons.

Other common items in Square 05 were a mirror, a laptop computer, and an experimental item belonging to the German space agency DLR called the Touch Array Assembly [ 28 ]. The laptop moved just three times, and only by a few centimeters each time, during the sample period. The Touch Array was a black frame enclosing three metal surfaces which were being tested for their bacterial resistance; members of the crew touched the surfaces at various moments during the sample period. Finally, and most prominent due to its size, frequency of appearance, and use (judged by its movement between context photos) was an unidentified crew member’s toiletry kit.

By contrast with Square 03, 05 was the most irregular sample location, roughly twice as wide as it was tall. Its dimensions were 111 cm (top) x 61.9 (left) x 111.4 (bottom) x 64.6 (right), for an area of approximately 0.7 m 2 , about 89% of Square 03. We identified 1,830 instances of items in the 60 contexts, an average of 30.5 (median = 32) per context. The minimum was 18 items in context 5, and the maximum was 39 in contexts 24, 51, and 52. The average item density was 43.6/m 2 (minimum = 26, maximum = 56), 57% of Square 03.

The number of items trended upward throughout the sample period ( Fig 5(A)) . The largest spike occurred in context 6 with the appearance of the toiletry kit, which stored (and revealed) a number of related items. The kit can also be linked to one of the largest dips in item count, seen from contexts 52 to 53, when it was closed (but remained in the square). Other major changes can often be attributed to the addition and removal of bungee cords, which had other items such as carabiners and brackets attached. For example, the dip seen in context 25 correlates with the removal of a bungee cord with four carabiners.

(a) Count of artifacts and average count in Square 05 over time. (b) Proportions of artifacts by function in Square 05. Credit: Rao Hamza Ali.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.g005

41 different item types were found in Square 05, about 55% as many as in Square 03. These belonged to five different categories: equipment (63%), electronic (17%), stowage (10%), office supplies (5%), and food (2%). The distribution of function proportions was quite different in this sample location ( Table 2 and Fig 5(B)) . Even though restraints were still most prominent, making up 32% of all items, body maintenance was almost as high (30%), indicating how strongly this area was associated with the activity of cleaning and caring for oneself. Computing (8%, represented by the laptop, which seems not to have been used), power (8%, from various cables), container (7%, resealable bags and Cargo Transfer Bags), and hygiene (6%, primarily the BPA duct) were the next most common items. Experiment was the function of 4% of the items, mostly the Touch Array, which appeared in every context, followed by drink (2%) and life support (1%). Safety, audiovisual, food, and light each made up less than 1% of the functional categories.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.t002

Tracking changes over time is critical to understanding the activity happening in each area. We now explore how the assemblages change by calculating the Brainerd-Robinson Coefficient of Similarity [ 29 , 30 ] as operationalized by Peeples [ 31 , 32 ]. This metric is used in archaeology for comparing all pairs of the contexts by the proportions of categorical artifact data, here functional type. Applying the coefficient to the SQuARE contexts enables identification of time periods for distinct activities using artifact function and frequency alone, independent of documentary or oral evidence.

Multiple phases of activities took place in the square. Moments of connected activity are visible as red clusters in contexts 0–2, 11–12, 28–32, and 41 ( Fig 6(A)) . Combining this visualization with close observation of the photos themselves, we argue that there are actually eight distinct chronological periods.

• Contexts 0–2: Period 1 (S1 Fig in S3 File ) is a three-day period of work involving a portable glovebag (contexts 0–1) and a large blue stowage bag (context 2). It is difficult to describe trends in functional types because the glovebag and stowage bag obstruct the view of many objects. Items which appear at the top of the sample area, such as audiovisual and body maintenance items, are overemphasized in the data as a result. It appears that some kind of science is happening here, perhaps medical sample collection due to the presence of several small resealable bags visible in the glovebag. The work appears particularly intense in context 1, with the positioning of the video camera and light to point into the glovebag. These items indicate observation and oversight of crew activities by ground control. A white cargo transfer bag for storage and the stowage bag for holding packing materials in the context 2 photo likely relate to the packing of a Cargo Dragon vehicle that was docked to Node 2. The Dragon departed from the ISS for Earth, full of scientific samples, equipment, and crew personal items, a little more than three hours after the context 2 photo was taken [ 33 ].
• Contexts 3–10: Period 2 (S2 Fig in S3 File ) was a “stable” eight-day period in the sample, when little activity is apparent, few objects were moved or transferred in or out the square, and the primary function of the area seems to be storage rather than work. In context 6, a large Post-It notepad appeared in the center of the metal panel with a phone number written on it. This number belonged to another astronaut, presumably indicating that someone on the ISS had been told to call that colleague on the ground (for reasons of privacy, and in accordance with NASA rules for disseminating imagery, we have blurred the number in the relevant images). In context 8, the same notepad sheet had new writing appear on it, this time reading “COL A1 L1,” the location of an experimental rack in the European lab module.
• Contexts 11–12: Period 3 (S3 Fig in S3 File ) involves a second appearance of a portable glovebag (a different one from that used in contexts 0–1, according to its serial number), this time for a known activity, a concrete hardening experiment belonging to the European Space Agency [ 34 , 35 ]. This two-day phase indicates how the MWA space can be shared with non-US agencies when required. It also demonstrates the utility of this flexible area for work beyond biology/medicine, such as material science. Oversight of the crew’s activities by ground staff is evident from the positioning of the video camera and LED light pointing into the glovebag.
• Contexts 13–27: Period 4 (S4 Fig in S3 File ) is another stable fifteen-day period, similar to Period 2. Many items continued to be stored on the aluminum panel. The LED light’s presence is a trace of the activity in Period 3 that persists throughout this phase. Only in context 25 can a movement of the lamp potentially be connected to an activity relating to one of the stored items on the wall: at least one nitrile glove was removed from a resealable bag behind the lamp. In general, the primary identifiable activity during Period 4 is storage.
• Contexts 28–32: Period 5 (S5 Fig in S3 File ), by contrast, represents a short period of five days of relatively high and diverse activity. In context 28, a Microsoft Hololens augmented reality headset appeared. According to the DSR for the previous day, a training activity called Sidekick was carried out using the headset [ 36 ]. The following day, a Saturday, showed no change in the quantity or type of objects, but many were moved around and grouped by function—adhesive tape rolls were placed together, tools were moved from Velcro patches into pouches or straightened, and writing implements were placed in a vertical orientation when previously they were tilted. Context 29 represents a cleaning and re-organization of the sample area, which is a common activity for the crew on Saturdays [ 37 ]. Finally, in context 32, an optical coherence tomography scanner—a large piece of equipment for medical research involving crew members’ eyes—appeared [ 38 ]. This device was used previously during the sample period, but on the same day as the ESA concrete experiment, so that earlier work seems to have happened elsewhere [ 39 ].
• Contexts 33–40: Period 6 (S6 Fig in S3 File ) is the third stable period, in which almost no changes are visible over eight days. The only sign of activity is a digital timer which was started six hours before the context 39 image was made and continued to run at least through context 42.
• Context 41: Period 7 (S7 Fig in S3 File ) is a single context in which medical sample collection may have occurred. Resealable bags (some holding others) appeared in the center of the image and at lower right. One of the bags at lower right had a printed label reading “Reservoir Containers.” We were not able to discern which type of reservoir containers the label refers to, although the DSR for the day mentions “[Human Research Facility] Generic Saliva Collection,” without stating the location for this work [ 40 ]. Evidence from photos of other squares shows that labeled bags could be re-used for other purposes, so our interpretation of medical activity for this context is not conclusive.
• Contexts 42–60: Period 8 (S8 Fig in S3 File ) is the last and longest period of stability and low activity—eighteen days in which no specific activity other than the storage of items can be detected. The most notable change is the appearance for the first time of a foil water pouch in the central part of the blue panel.

Visualization of Brainerd-Robinson similarity, compared context-by-context by item function, for (a) Square 03 and (b) Square 05. The more alike a pair of contexts is, the higher the coefficient value, with a context compared against itself where a value of 200 equals perfect similarity. The resulting matrix of coefficients is visualized on a scale from blue to red where blue is lowest and red is highest similarity. The dark red diagonal line indicates complete similarity, where each context is compared to itself. Dark blue represents a complete difference. Credit: Shawn Graham.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.g006

In the standards used at the time of installation, “stowage space” was the sixth design requirement listed for the MWA after accessibility; equipment size capability; scratch-resistant surfaces; capabilities for electrical, mechanical, vacuum, and fluid support during maintenance; and the accommodation of diagnostic equipment [ 20 ]. Only capabilities for fabrication were listed lower than stowage. Yet 50 of the 60 contexts (83%) fell within stable periods where little or no activity is identifiable in Square 03. According to the sample results, therefore, this area seems to exist not for “maintenance,” but primarily for the storage and arrangement of items. The most recent update of the design standards does not mention the MWA, but states, “Stowage location of tool kits should be optimized for accessibility to workstations and/or maintenance workbenches” [ 25 ]. Our observation confirms the importance of this suggestion.

The MWA was also a flexible location for certain science work, like the concrete study or crew health monitoring. Actual maintenance of equipment was hardly in evidence in the sample (possibly contexts 25, 39, and 44), and may not even have happened at all in this location. Some training did happen here, such as review of procedures for the Electromagnetic Levitator camera (instructions for changing settings on a high-speed camera appeared on the laptop screen; the day’s DSR shows that this camera is part of the Electromagnetic Levitator facility, located in the Columbus module [ 41 ]. The training required the use of the Hololens system (context 28 DSR, cited above).

Although many item types were represented in Square 03, it became clear during data capture how many things were basically static, unmoving and therefore unused, especially certain tools, writing implements, and body maintenance items. The MWA was seen as an appropriate place to store these items. It may be the case that their presence here also indicates that their function was seen as an appropriate one for this space, but the function(s) may not be carried out—or perhaps not in this location. Actualization of object function was only visible to us when the state of the item changed—it appeared, it moved, it changed orientation, it disappeared, or, in the case of artifacts that were grouped in collections rather than found as singletons, its shape changed or it became visibly smaller/lesser. We therefore have the opportunity to explore not only actuality of object use, but also potentiality of use or function, and the meaning of that quality for archaeological interpretation [ 42 , 43 ]. This possibility is particularly intriguing in light of the archaeological turn towards recognizing the agency of objects to impact human activity [ 44 , 45 ]. We will explore these implications in a future publication.

We performed the same chronological analysis for Square 05. Fig 6(B) represents the analysis for both item types and for item functions. We identified three major phases of activity, corresponding to contexts 0–5, 6–52, and 53–59 (S9-S11 Figs in S3 File ). The primary characteristics of these phases relate to an early period of unclear associations (0–5) marked by the presence of rolls of adhesive tape and a few body maintenance items (toothpaste and toothbrush, wet wipes); the appearance of a toiletry kit on the right side of the sample area, fully open with clear views of many of the items contained within (6–52); and finally, the closure of the toiletry kit so that its contents can no longer be seen (53–59). We interpret the phases as follows:

• Contexts 0–5: In Period 1 (six days, S9 Fig in S3 File ), while items such as a mirror, dental floss picks, wet wipes, and a toothbrush held in the end of a toothpaste tube were visible, the presence of various other kinds of items confounds easy interpretation. Two rolls of duct tape were stored on the handrail in the center of the sample area, and the Touch Array and laptop appeared in the center. Little movement can be identified, apart from a blue nitrile glove that appeared in context 1 and moved left across the area until it was wedged into the bungee cord for contexts 3 and 4. The tape rolls were removed prior to context 5. A collection of resealable bags was wedged behind the handrail in context 3, remaining there until context 9. Overall, this appears to be a period characterized by eclectic associations, showing an area without a clear designated function.
• Contexts 6–52: Period 2 (S10 Fig in S3 File ) is clearly the most significant one for this location due to its duration (47 days). It was dominated by the number of body maintenance items located in and around the toiletry kit, especially a white hand towel (on which a brown stain was visible from context 11, allowing us to confirm that the same towel was present until context 46). A second towel appeared alongside the toiletry kit in context 47, and the first one was fixed at the same time to the handrail, where it remained through the end of the sample period. A third towel appeared in context 52, attached to the handrail together with the first one by a bungee cord, continuing to the end of the sample period. Individual body maintenance items moved frequently from one context to the next, showing the importance of this type of activity for this part of Node 3. For reasons that are unclear, the mirror shifted orientation from vertical to diagonal in context 22, and then was put back in a vertical orientation in context 31 (a Monday, a day which is not traditionally associated with cleaning and organization). Collections of resealable bags appeared at various times, including a large one labeled “KYNAR BAG OF ZIPLOCKS” in green marker at the upper left part of the sample area beginning of context 12 (Kynar is a non-flammable plastic material that NASA prefers for resealable bags to the generic commercial off-the-shelf variety because it is non-flammable; however, its resistance to heat makes it less desirable for creating custom sizes, so bags made from traditional but flammable low-density polyethylene still dominate on the ISS [ 14 ]). The Kynar bag contained varying numbers of bags within it over time; occasionally, it appeared to be empty. The Touch Array changed orientation on seven of 47 days in period 2, or 15% of the time (12% of all days in the survey), showing activity associated with scientific research in this area. In context 49, a life-support item, the Airborne Particulate Monitor (APM) was installed [ 46 ]. This device, which measures “real-time particulate data” to assess hazards to crew health [ 47 ], persisted through the end of the sample period.
• Contexts 53–59: Period 3 (S11 Fig in S3 File ) appears as a seven-day phase marked by low activity. Visually, the most notable feature is the closure of the toiletry kit, which led to much lower counts of body maintenance items. Hardly any of the items on the wall moved at all during this period.

While body maintenance in the form of cleaning and caring for oneself could be an expected function for an area with exercise and excretion facilities, it is worth noting that the ISS provides, at most, minimal accommodation for this activity. A description of the WHC stated, “To provide privacy…an enclosure was added to the front of the rack. This enclosure, referred to as the Cabin, is approximately the size of a typical bathroom stall and provides room for system consumables and hygiene item stowage. Space is available to also support limited hygiene functions such as hand and body washing” [ 48 ]. A diagram of the WHC in the same publication shows the Cabin without a scale but suggests that it measures roughly 2 m (h) x .75 (w) x .75 (d), a volume of approximately 1.125 m 3 . NASA’s current design standards state that the body volume of a 95th percentile male astronaut is 0.99 m 3 [ 20 ], meaning that a person of that size would take up 88% of the space of the Cabin, leaving little room for performing cleaning functions—especially if the Cabin is used as apparently intended, to also hold “system consumables and hygiene item[s]” that would further diminish the usable volume. This situation explains why crews try to adapt other spaces, such as storage areas like the PMM, for these activities instead. According to the crew debriefing statement, only one of them used the WHC for body maintenance purposes; it is not clear whether the toiletry kit belonged to that individual. But the appearance of the toiletry kit in Square 05—outside of the WHC, in a public space where others frequently pass by—may have been a response to the limitations of the WHC Cabin. It suggests a need for designers to re-evaluate affordances for body maintenance practices and storage for related items.

Although Square 03 and 05 were different sizes and shapes, comparing the density of items by function shows evidence of their usage ( Table 3 ). The typical context in Square 03 had twice as many restraints and containers, but less than one-quarter as many body maintenance items as Square 05. 03 also had many tools, lights, audiovisual equipment, and writing implements, while there were none of any of these types in 05. 05 had life support and hygiene items which were missing from 03. It appears that flexibility and multifunctionality were key elements for 03, while in 05 there was emphasis on one primary function (albeit an improvised one, designated by the crew rather than architects or ground control), cleaning and caring for one’s body, with a secondary function of housing static equipment for crew hygiene and life support.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.t003

As this is the first time such an analysis has been performed, it is not yet possible to say how typical or unusual these squares are regarding the types of activities taking place; but they provide a baseline for eventual comparison with the other four squares and future work on ISS or other space habitats.

Some general characteristics are revealed by archaeological analysis of a space station’s material culture. First, even in a small, enclosed site, occupied by only a few people over a relatively short sample period, we can observe divergent patterns for different locations and activity phases. Second, while distinct functions are apparent for these two squares, they are not the functions that we expected prior to this research. As a result, our work fulfills the promise of the archaeological approach to understanding life in a space station by revealing new, previously unrecognized phenomena relating to life and work on the ISS. There is now systematically recorded archaeological data for a space habitat.

Squares 03 and 05 served quite different purposes. The reasons for this fact are their respective affordances and their locations relative to activity areas designated for science and exercise. Their national associations, especially the manifestation of the control wielded by NASA over its modules, also played a role in the use of certain materials, the placement of facilities, and the organization of work. How each area was used was also the result of an interplay between the original plans developed by mission planners and habitat designers (or the lack of such plans), the utility of the equipment and architecture in each location, and the contingent needs of the crew as they lived in the station. This interplay became visible in the station’s material culture, as certain areas were associated with particular behaviors, over time and through tradition—over the long duration across many crews (Node 2, location of Square 03, docked with the ISS in 2007, and Node 3, location of Square 05, docked in 2010), and during the specific period of this survey, from January to March 2022. During the crew debriefing, one astronaut said, “We were a pretty organized crew who was also pretty much on the same page about how to do things…. As time went on…we organized the lab and kind of got on the same page about where we put things and how we’re going to do things.” This statement shows how functional associations can become linked to different areas of the ISS through usage and mutual agreement. At the same time, the station is not frozen in time. Different people have divergent ideas about how and where to do things. It seems from the appearance of just one Russian item—a packet of generic wipes ( salfetky sukhiye ) stored in the toiletry kit throughout the sample period—that the people who used these spaces and carried out their functions did not typically include the ISS’s Russian crew. Enabling greater flexibility to define how spaces can be used could have a significant impact on improving crew autonomy over their lives, such as how and where to work. It could also lead to opening of all spaces within a habitat to the entire crew, which seems likely to improve general well-being.

An apparent disjunction between planned and actual usage appeared in Square 03. It is intended for maintenance as well as other kinds of work. But much of the time, there was nobody working here—a fact that is not captured by historic photos of the area, precisely because nothing is happening. The space has instead become the equivalent of a pegboard mounted on a wall in a home garage or shed, convenient for storage for all kinds of items—not necessarily items being used there—because it has an enormous number of attachment points. Storage has become its primary function. Designers of future workstations in space should consider that they might need to optimize for functions other than work, because most of the time, there might not be any work happening there. They could optimize for quick storage, considering whether to impose a system of organization, or allow users to organize as they want.

We expected from previous (though unsystematic) observation of historic photos and other research, that resealable plastic bags (combined with Velcro patches on the bags and walls) would be the primary means for creating gravity surrogates to control items in microgravity. They only comprise 7% of all items in Square 03 (256 instances). There are more than twice as many clips (572—more than 9 per context) in the sample. There were 193 instances of adhesive tape rolls, and more than 100 cable ties, but these were latent (not holding anything), representing potentiality of restraint rather than actualization. The squares showed different approaches to managing “gravity.” While Square 03 had a pre-existing structured array of Velcro patches, Square 05 showed a more expedient strategy with Velcro added in response to particular activities. Different needs require different affordances; creating “gravity” is a more nuanced endeavor than it initially appears. More work remains to be done to optimize gravity surrogates for future space habitats, because this is evidently one of the most critical adaptations that crews have to make in microgravity (44% of all items in Square 03, 39% in 05).

Square 05 is an empty space, seemingly just one side of a passageway for people going to use the lifting machine or the latrine, to look out of the Cupola, or get something out of deep storage in one of the ISS’s closets. In our survey, this square was a storage place for toiletries, resealable bags, and a computer that never (or almost never) gets used. It was associated with computing and hygiene simply by virtue of its location, rather than due to any particular facilities it possessed. It has no affordances for storage. There are no cabinets or drawers, as would be appropriate for organizing and holding crew personal items. A crew member decided that this was an appropriate place to leave their toiletry kit for almost two months. Whether this choice was appreciated or resented by fellow crew members cannot be discerned based on our evidence, but it seems to have been tolerated, given its long duration. The location of the other four USOS crew members’ toiletry kits during the sample period is unknown. A question raised by our observations is: how might a function be more clearly defined by designers for this area, perhaps by providing lockers for individual crew members to store their toiletries and towels? This would have a benefit not only for reducing clutter, but also for reducing exposure of toiletry kits and the items stored in them to flying sweat from the exercise equipment or other waste particles from the latrine. A larger compartment providing privacy for body maintenance and a greater range of motion would also be desirable.

As the first systematic collection of archaeological data from a space site outside Earth, this analysis of two areas on the ISS as part of the SQuARE payload has shown that novel insights into material culture use can be obtained, such as the use of wall areas as storage or staging posts between activities, the accretion of objects associated with different functions, and the complexity of using material replacements for gravity. These results enable better space station design and raise new questions that will be addressed through analysis of the remaining four squares.

Supporting information

S1 movie. nasa astronaut kayla barron installs the first square for the sampling quadrangle assemblages research experiment in the japanese experiment module (also known as kibo) on the international space station, january 14, 2022..

She places Kapton tape to mark the square’s upper right corner. Credit: NASA.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.s001

S1 Dataset.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.s002

S2 Dataset.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.s003

S3 Dataset. The image annotations are represented according to sample square in json formatted text files.

The data is available in the ‘SQuARE-notebooks’ repository on Github.com in the ‘data’ subfolder at https://github.com/issarchaeologicalproject/SQuARE-notebooks/tree/main ; archived version of the repository is at Zenodo, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10654812 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.s004

S1 File. The ‘Rocket-Anno’ image annotation software is available on Github at https://github.com/issarchaeologicalproject/MRE-RocketAnno .

The archived version of the repository is at Zenodo, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10648399 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.s005

S2 File. The computational notebooks that process the data json files to reshape the data suitable for basic statistics as well as the computation of the Brainerd-Robinson coefficients of similarity are in the.ipynb notebook format.

The code is available in the ‘SQuARE-notebooks’ repository on Github.com in the ‘notebooks’ subfolder at https://github.com/issarchaeologicalproject/SQuARE-notebooks/tree/main ; archived version of the repository is at Zenodo, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10654812 . The software can be run online in the Google Colab environment ( https://colab.research.google.com ) or any system running Jupyter Notebooks ( https://jupyter.org/ ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.s006

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304229.s007

Acknowledgments

We thank Chapman University’s Office of Research and Sponsored Programs, and especially Dr. Thomas Piechota and Dr. Janeen Hill, for funding the Implementation Partner costs associated with the SQuARE payload. Chapman’s Leatherby Libraries’ Supporting Open Access Research and Scholarship (SOARS) program funded the article processing fee for this publication. Ken Savin and Ken Shields at the ISS National Laboratory gave major support by agreeing to sponsor SQuARE and providing access to ISS NL’s allocation of crew time. David Zuniga and Kryn Ambs at Axiom Space were key collaborators in managing payload logistics. NASA staff and contractors were critical to the experiment’s success, especially Kristen Fortson, Jay Weber, Crissy Canerday, Sierra Wolbert, and Jade Conway. We also gratefully acknowledge the help and resources provided by Dr. Erik Linstead, director of the Machine Learning and Affiliated Technology Lab at Chapman University. Aidan St. P. Walsh corrected the color and lens barrel distortion in all of the SQuARE imagery. Rao Hamza Ali produced charts using accessible color combinations for Figs 3 and 5 . And finally, of course, we are extremely appreciative of the efforts of the five USOS members of the Expedition 66 crew on the ISS—Kayla Barron, Raja Chari, Thomas Marshburn, Matthias Maurer, and Mark Vande Hei—who were the first archaeologists in space.

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