essay on hinduism religion

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By: History.com Editors

Updated: November 16, 2023 | Original: October 6, 2017

Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion, according to many scholars, with roots and customs dating back more than 4,000 years. Today, with more than 1 billion followers , Hinduism is the third-largest religion worldwide, after Christianity and Islam . Roughly 94 percent of the world’s Hindus live in India. Because the religion has no specific founder, it’s difficult to trace its origins and history. Hinduism is unique in that it’s not a single religion but a compilation of many traditions and philosophies: Hindus worship a number of different gods and minor deities, honor a range of symbols, respect several different holy books and celebrate with a wide variety of traditions, holidays and customs. Though the development of the caste system in India was influenced by Hindu concepts , it has been shaped throughout history by political as well as religious movements, and today is much less rigidly enforced. Today there are four major sects of Hinduism: Shaivism, Vaishnava, Shaktism and Smarta, as well as a number of smaller sects with their own religious practices.

Hinduism Beliefs, Symbols

Some basic Hindu concepts include:

• Hinduism embraces many religious ideas. For this reason, it’s sometimes referred to as a “way of life” or a “family of religions,” as opposed to a single, organized religion.
• Most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic, which means they worship a single deity, known as “Brahman,” but still recognize other gods and goddesses. Followers believe there are multiple paths to reaching their god.
• Hindus believe in the doctrines of samsara (the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation) and karma (the universal law of cause and effect).
• One of the key thoughts of Hinduism is “atman,” or the belief in soul. This philosophy holds that living creatures have a soul, and they’re all part of the supreme soul. The goal is to achieve “moksha,” or salvation, which ends the cycle of rebirths to become part of the absolute soul.
• One fundamental principle of the religion is the idea that people’s actions and thoughts directly determine their current life and future lives.
• Hindus strive to achieve dharma, which is a code of living that emphasizes good conduct and morality.
• Hindus revere all living creatures and consider the cow a sacred animal.
• Food is an important part of life for Hindus. Most don’t eat beef or pork, and many are vegetarians.
• Hinduism is closely related to other Indian religions, including Buddhism , Sikhism and Jainism.

There are two primary symbols associated with Hinduism, the om and the swastika. The word swastika means "good fortune" or "being happy" in Sanskrit, and the symbol represents good luck . (A hooked, diagonal variation of the swastika later became associated with Germany’s Nazi Party  when they made it their symbol in 1920.)

The om symbol is composed of three Sanskrit letters and represents three sounds (a, u and m), which when combined are considered a sacred sound. The om symbol is often found at family shrines and in Hindu temples.

Hinduism Holy Books

Hindus value many sacred writings as opposed to one holy book.

The primary sacred texts, known as the Vedas, were composed around 1500 B.C. This collection of verses and hymns was written in Sanskrit and contains revelations received by ancient saints and sages.

The Vedas are made up of:

• The Rig Veda
• The Samaveda
• Atharvaveda

Hindus believe that the Vedas transcend all time and don’t have a beginning or an end.

The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, 18 Puranas, Ramayana and Mahabharata are also considered important texts in Hinduism.

Origins of Hinduism

Most scholars believe Hinduism started somewhere between 2300 B.C. and 1500 B.C. in the Indus Valley, near modern-day Pakistan. But many Hindus argue that their faith is timeless and has always existed.

Unlike other religions, Hinduism has no one founder but is instead a fusion of various beliefs.

Around 1500 B.C., the Indo-Aryan people migrated to the Indus Valley, and their language and culture blended with that of the indigenous people living in the region. There’s some debate over who influenced whom more during this time.

The period when the Vedas were composed became known as the “Vedic Period” and lasted from about 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C. Rituals, such as sacrifices and chanting, were common in the Vedic Period.

The Epic, Puranic and Classic Periods took place between 500 B.C. and A.D. 500. Hindus began to emphasize the worship of deities, especially Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.

The concept of dharma was introduced in new texts, and other faiths, such as Buddhism and Jainism, spread rapidly.

Hinduism vs. Buddhism

Hinduism and Buddhism have many similarities. Buddhism, in fact, arose out of Hinduism, and both believe in reincarnation, karma and that a life of devotion and honor is a path to salvation and enlightenment. 

But some key differences exist between the two religions: Many strains of Buddhism reject the caste system, and do away with many of the rituals, the priesthood, and the gods that are integral to Hindu faith.

Medieval and Modern Hindu History

The Medieval Period of Hinduism lasted from about A.D. 500 to 1500. New texts emerged, and poet-saints recorded their spiritual sentiments during this time.

In the 7th century, Muslim Arabs began invading areas in India. During parts of the Muslim Period, which lasted from about 1200 to 1757, Islamic rulers prevented Hindus from worshipping their deities, and some temples were destroyed.

Mahatma Gandhi

Between 1757 and 1947, the British controlled India. At first, the new rulers allowed Hindus to practice their religion without interference, but the British soon attempted to exploit aspects of Indian culture as leverage points for political control, in some cases exacerbating Hindu caste divisions even as they promoted westernized, Christian approaches.

Many reformers emerged during the British Period. The well-known politician and peace activist, Mahatma Gandhi , led a movement that pushed for India’s independence.

The partition of India occurred in 1947, and Gandhi was assassinated in 1948. British India was split into what are now the independent nations of India and Pakistan , and Hinduism became the major religion of India.

Starting in the 1960s, many Hindus migrated to North America and Britain, spreading their faith and philosophies to the western world.

Hindus worship many gods and goddesses in addition to Brahman, who is believed to be the supreme God force present in all things.

Some of the most prominent deities include:

• Brahma: the god responsible for the creation of the world and all living things
• Vishnu: the god that preserves and protects the universe
• Shiva: the god that destroys the universe in order to recreate it
• Devi: the goddess that fights to restore dharma
• Krishna: the god of compassion, tenderness and love
• Lakshmi: the goddess of wealth and purity
• Saraswati: the goddess of learning

Places of Worship

Hindu worship, which is known as “puja,” typically takes place in the Mandir (temple). Followers of Hinduism can visit the Mandir any time they please.

Hindus can also worship at home, and many have a special shrine dedicated to certain gods and goddesses.

The giving of offerings is an important part of Hindu worship. It’s a common practice to present gifts, such as flowers or oils, to a god or goddess.

Additionally, many Hindus take pilgrimages to temples and other sacred sites in India.

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Hinduism Sects

Hinduism has many sects, and the following are often considered the four major denominations.

Shaivism is one of the largest denominations of Hinduism, and its followers worship Shiva, sometimes known as “The Destroyer,” as their supreme deity.

Shaivism spread from southern India into Southeast Asia and is practiced in Vietnam, Cambodia and Indonesia as well as India. Like the other major sects of Hinduism, Shaivism considers the Vedas and the Upanishads to be sacred texts.

Vaishnavism is considered the largest Hindu sect, with an estimated 640 million followers, and is practiced worldwide. It includes sub-sects that are familiar to many non-Hindus, including Ramaism and Krishnaism.

Vaishnavism recognizes many deities, including Vishnu, Lakshmi, Krishna and Rama, and the religious practices of Vaishnavism vary from region to region across the Indian subcontinent.

Shaktism is somewhat unique among the four major traditions of Hinduism in that its followers worship a female deity, the goddess Shakti (also known as Devi).

Shaktism is sometimes practiced as a monotheistic religion, while other followers of this tradition worship a number of goddesses. This female-centered denomination is sometimes considered complementary to Shaivism, which recognizes a male deity as supreme.

The Smarta or Smartism tradition of Hinduism is somewhat more orthodox and restrictive than the other four mainstream denominations. It tends to draw its followers from the Brahman upper caste of Indian society.

Smartism followers worship five deities: Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, Ganesh and Surya. Their temple at Sringeri is generally recognized as the center of worship for the denomination.

Some Hindus elevate the Hindu trinity, which consists of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Others believe that all the deities are a manifestation of one.

Hindu Caste System

The caste system is a social hierarchy in India that divides Hindus based on their karma and dharma. Although the word “caste” is of Portuguese origin, it is used to describe aspects of the related Hindu concepts of varna (color or race) and jati (birth). Many scholars believe the system dates back more than 3,000 years.

The four main castes (in order of prominence) include:

• Brahmin: the intellectual and spiritual leaders
• Kshatriyas: the protectors and public servants of society
• Vaisyas: the skillful producers
• Shudras: the unskilled laborers

Many subcategories also exist within each caste. The “Untouchables” are a class of citizens that are outside the caste system and considered to be in the lowest level of the social hierarchy.

For centuries, the caste system determined most aspect of a person’s social, professional and religious status in India.

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When India became an independent nation, its constitution banned discrimination based on caste.

Today, the caste system still exists in India but is loosely followed. Many of the old customs are overlooked, but some traditions, such as only marrying within a specific caste, are still embraced.

Hindus observe numerous sacred days, holidays and festivals.

Some of the most well-known include:

• Diwali : the festival of lights
• Navaratri: a celebration of fertility and harvest
• Holi: a spring festival
• Krishna Janmashtami: a tribute to Krishna’s birthday
• Raksha Bandhan: a celebration of the bond between brother and sister
• Maha Shivaratri: the great festival of Shiva

Hinduism Facts. Sects of Hinduism . Hindu American Foundation. Hinduism Basics . History of Hinduism, BBC . Hinduism Fast Facts, CNN .

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Essay on Hinduism

Introduction to Hinduism

Hinduism, a complex and vibrant tapestry of beliefs and practices, is among the world’s oldest and most diverse religions. Rooted in the ancient civilizations of the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism encompasses a vast array of philosophies, rituals, and cultural expressions.

Thousands of years ago, sages, scriptures, and mythologies evolved their origins through wisdom and insights. Hinduism’s enduring appeal lies in its multifaceted approach to spirituality, embracing concepts like karma, dharma, and moksha. In this essay, we will delve into the essence of Hinduism and reveal its profound mysteries.

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Origins and Historical Development of Hinduism

The origins of Hinduism are deeply intertwined with the cultural, philosophical, and religious evolution of the Indian subcontinent. While pinpointing its exact inception is challenging, scholars often trace the roots of Hinduism to the ancient civilizations of the Indus Valley , around 2500 BCE. However, the foundations of Hinduism as we know it today began to take shape during the Vedic period, which spanned roughly from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE.

• Early Vedic Period: The Early Vedic Period (circa 1500 BCE – 600 BCE) marks the foundational phase of Hinduism, characterized by the composition of the Rigveda, the oldest of the four Vedas, which contain hymns dedicated to various deities. During this period, pastoral and agricultural communities organized society and rituals centered on offerings to deities for prosperity and well-being. The Vedic literature provides insights into the religious, social, and cultural practices of ancient Indian society, including the reverence for nature and the importance of sacrificial rites.
• Upanishadic Thought: The Upanishads, philosophical texts around 800 BCE to 200 BCE, represent a significant shift in Hindu thought from ritualistic practices to philosophical inquiry. They delve deeply into the essence of existence, the self (Atman), and ultimate reality (Brahman), establishing the framework for important philosophical themes in Hinduism. The Upanishads challenge traditional notions of divinity and offer deeper insights into the nature of reality, consciousness, and liberation (moksha).
• Evolution of Hindu Scriptures: Hindu scriptures include the Vedas, Upanishads, Epics (Mahabharata, Ramayana), and Puranas. The Vedas considered the most authoritative scriptures, contain hymns, rituals, and philosophical discussions. The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana are repositories of moral and ethical teachings, while the Puranas elaborate on cosmology, mythology, and religious practices. These scriptures reflect ancient India’s evolving religious and cultural landscape, integrating diverse traditions, beliefs, and narratives.
• Influence of Key Figures: Revered figures such as rishis (sages), gurus (spiritual teachers), and avatars (divine incarnations) shape Hinduism through their teachings and contributions. Rishis played a crucial role in transmitting sacred knowledge and preserving oral traditions through the ages. Gurus impart spiritual guidance and wisdom to their disciples, fostering spiritual growth and enlightenment. Avatars, divine manifestations of the Supreme Being, descend to Earth to restore cosmic balance and guide humanity towards righteousness and liberation.

Core Beliefs and Philosophical Foundations

In the section on “Core Beliefs and Philosophical Foundations” of Hinduism, we delve into the fundamental tenets and philosophical underpinnings that define the essence of the religion:

Concept of Brahman: The Ultimate Reality

• Definition and Nature: Brahman represents the ultimate, formless, and transcendent reality in Hinduism. It is beyond human comprehension, existing beyond the manifested world.
• Immanence and Transcendence: Brahman is both immanent, permeating the entire cosmos, and transcendent, existing beyond the material world. The duality of immanence and transcendence reflects the multifaceted nature of Brahman.
• Unity in Diversity: Despite the diverse manifestations of the divine in Hinduism, all deities are considered expressions of the underlying unity of Brahman.

Understanding Atman: The Inner Self

• Nature of Atman: Atman is each individual’s eternal, unchanging essence. It is distinct from the physical body and mind, representing the true self.
• Cycle of Rebirth (Samsara) and Karma: The soul goes through a cycle of birth, death, and reincarnation (samsara), which is driven by the law of karma. Karma refers to the consequences of one’s deeds, which affect future life conditions.
• Liberation (Moksha): Moksha is the ultimate goal, signifying liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Achieving moksha involves realizing the oneness of Atman and Brahman through spiritual knowledge and self-realization.

Law of Karma and Reincarnation (Samsara)

• Karma Defined: Karma is the law of cause and effect, determining the consequences of one’s actions. Actions can be categorized as good (punya) or bad (paap), influencing the soul’s journey through samsara.
• Samsara and Reincarnation: Samsara is the continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Reincarnation involves transmigration the soul into a new body based on accumulated karma.
• Breaking the Cycle: Moksha is the liberation from samsara, breaking the cycle of rebirth. Individuals strive to accumulate positive karma and engage in righteous actions to progress towards moksha.

Paths to Liberation

• Karma Yoga: Emphasizes selfless action and performing duties without attachment to the results. Balancing one’s responsibilities while maintaining a detached attitude leads to spiritual growth.
• Bhakti Yoga: Devotion to a personal deity fosters an emotional connection with the divine. Practitioners cultivate love and devotion through prayer, worship, and surrender, transcending ego.
• Jnana Yoga: Focuses on knowledge and wisdom, seeking to understand the nature of reality. Introspection, study of sacred texts, and contemplation lead to realizing the ultimate truth.
• Raja Yoga: Involves the practice of meditation and disciplined control of the mind and body. Through concentration and meditation, individuals attain self-realization and inner peace.

Importance of Dharma: Duty and Moral Order

• Dharma Defined: Dharma refers to one’s duty and righteous conduct according to one’s societal role. It upholds moral and ethical principles that guide individuals in leading a virtuous life .
• Four Pillars of Dharma: Dharma encompasses duties related to personal conduct (Achara), social ethics (vyavahara), personal well-being (svabhava), and spiritual practices (sadhana).
• Dharma and Social Harmony: Upholding Dharma contributes to societal harmony and the well-being of individuals and the community. It serves as the moral compass for ethical decision-making in the personal and social realms.

Deities and Divine Manifestations

In Hinduism, deities and divine manifestations play a crucial role in the religious and spiritual landscape, reflecting the multifaceted nature of the divine. Here’s a concise exploration of this aspect:

• Brahma : The creator deity responsible for manifesting the universe and all beings.
• Vishnu : The preserver deity who maintains cosmic order and incarnates on Earth to restore balance.
• Shiva : The destroyer deity who facilitates transformation and renewal, representing both destruction and regeneration.
• Devi : The supreme goddess, embodying feminine energy and representing the universe’s creative force.
• Lakshmi : The goddess of wealth, prosperity, and abundance, associated with Vishnu as his consort.
• Parvati : The consort of Shiva, embodying power, devotion, and divine energy.
• Ganesha : The elephant-headed god, worshipped as the remover of obstacles, is associated with intelligence, prosperity, and success.
• Hanuman : The monkey deity known for his unwavering devotion to Lord Rama, embodying strength, loyalty, and courage.
• Saraswati : The goddess of knowledge, music, and the arts, associated with wisdom, creativity, and learning.
• Durga : The warrior goddess who combats evil forces and represents the fierce aspect of feminine power.
• Concept of Avatar: The avatar concept involves divine incarnations, where a deity descends to Earth to fulfill a specific purpose or restore cosmic balance. Vishnu’s avatars, such as Rama and Krishna, exemplify this concept.
• Devotion (Bhakti) and Temples: Bhakti, the path of devotion, involves profound love and devotion to a chosen deity. Temples dedicated to various deities are focal points for worship, rituals, and community gatherings.
• Personal Gods and Ishta Devata: Many Hindus choose a personal deity, Ishta Devata, to whom they feel a special connection. This chosen deity becomes a focus of individual worship and devotion.
• Symbolism and Iconography: Artists often depict deities with specific symbols and iconography that convey their attributes and stories. The symbolism aids devotees in contemplating the divine qualities represented by each deity.
• Pan-Hinduism and Local Variations: Hindus universally worship specific deities but encounter regional variations with unique local deities and practices. This diversity reflects the adaptability and inclusivity within the broader framework of Hinduism.

Rituals, Festivals, and Sacred Practices

In Hinduism, rituals, festivals, and sacred practices are central to fostering spiritual growth, community cohesion, and reverence for the divine. Here’s an exploration:

Worship and Rituals:

• Puja : A ritualistic worship conducted by individuals or communities to honor deities and seek their blessings.
• Elements : Puja involves various rituals, such as offering flowers, incense, lamps, and food to the deity.
• Mantras and Prayers : Devotees chant sacred mantras and recite prayers to invoke divine presence and express devotion.  

Importance of Temples and Pilgrimage Sites

• Temples : Serve as sacred spaces dedicated to specific deities, providing a place for worship, meditation, and community gatherings.
• Pilgrimage : Hindus journey to holy sites such as Varanasi, Rishikesh, and Tirupati to seek spiritual purification and divine blessings.

Celebration of Festivals

• Diwali : Another name for the Festival of Lights, Diwali rejoices in the victory of right over wrong and light over darkness. It include eating celebratory meals, exchanging gifts, and lighting fireworks and lamps.
• Holi : The festival of colors commemorates the arrival of spring and celebrates the victory of devotion over ego. Participants engage in playful activities, music, and throwing colored powders.
• Navaratri : A nine-night festival dedicated to worshiping the divine feminine in her various forms, culminating in the celebration of Durga Puja .
• Ganesh Chaturthi : Honors the elephant-headed deity Ganesha , marking his birthday with elaborate rituals, processions, and the immersion of Ganesha idols in water bodies.

Sacraments of Life

• Birth Rituals : Ceremonies such as Namakaran (naming ceremony) and Annaprashan (first feeding of solid food) mark significant milestones in a child’s life.
• Marriage Rituals : Weddings involve elaborate ceremonies, rituals, and vows conducted according to religious scriptures and cultural traditions.
• Death Rituals : Funerary rites such as cremation or burial, along with prayers and offerings, guide the soul’s journey to the afterlife.  

Spiritual Practices

• Meditation : Practiced in various forms, such as mantra meditation, mindfulness, and breath awareness, to cultivate inner peace and spiritual insight.
• Yoga : Includes physical postures (asanas), breathing techniques (pranayama), and meditation aimed at harmonizing body, mind, and spirit.
• Scripture Study : The study of sacred texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Ramayana provides spiritual guidance and philosophical insights.

Hindu Ethics and Social Structure

In Hinduism, religious teachings, cultural norms, and philosophical principles deeply intertwine with ethics and social structure. Here’s an explanation of each point:

• Concept of Ahimsa: Ahimsa, or non-violence, is a foundational principle in Hindu ethics, emphasizing compassion, kindness, and harmlessness towards all living beings. It extends beyond physical harm to mental and emotional well-being, promoting peace and harmony in thought, word, and action. Ahimsa is embodied in the lives of spiritual leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and forms the basis for vegetarianism and animal welfare practices among Hindus.
• Caste System: The caste system, rooted in ancient Indian society, classifies individuals into hierarchical social groups based on birth, occupation, and social status. Traditionally, the caste system comprised four main varnas: Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and farmers), and Shudras (laborers). While individuals have made efforts to eradicate caste discrimination and promote social equality, challenges persist, including caste-based discrimination, social exclusion, and disparities in access to education and opportunities.
• Importance of Family, Community, and Guru-Disciple Relationship: Hindu society considers the family (kutumb) as the cornerstone, providing emotional support, moral guidance, and continuity of cultural traditions. The community (sangha) plays a vital role in fostering social cohesion, collective worship, and mutual assistance among its members. In Hinduism, disciples revere the guru-disciple relationship, with spiritual teachers (gurus) guiding them on self-discovery, moral conduct, and spiritual realization.
• Stewardship of Nature: Hinduism reveres nature as sacred and emphasizes the interconnectedness of all living beings with the environment. The concept of vasudhaiva kutumbakam (the world is one family) underscores the need for responsible stewardship and sustainable living practices. Environmental ethics in Hinduism advocate reverence for rivers, mountains, plants, and animals, promoting ecological balance and preserving natural resources.

Influence of Hinduism on Indian Culture and Beyond

The influence of Hinduism on Indian culture and beyond is profound, touching every aspect of life, including spirituality, art, philosophy, literature, and societal norms. Here’s an exploration of its impact:

• Spirituality and Philosophy: Hinduism has shaped the spiritual landscape of India, providing a diverse array of philosophical perspectives and spiritual practices. Concepts such as karma, dharma, moksha, and reincarnation have permeated Indian thought and influenced the understanding of life, death, and the purpose of existence.
• Art and Architecture: With their intricate carvings, majestic spires, and sacred sculptures, Hindu temples serve as architectural marvels and centers of spiritual worship. Iconography and symbolism in Hindu art reflect divine narratives, mythological stories, and spiritual teachings, conveying deeper philosophical truths to devotees and visitors alike.
• Literature and Epics: The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, along with other ancient texts like the Vedas and Upanishads, form the literary backbone of Hinduism. These narratives contain moral lessons, ethical dilemmas, and profound insights into human nature, shaping cultural identity and values across generations.
• Philosophical Traditions: Hindu philosophy encompasses diverse schools of thought, including Advaita Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, and Vaisheshika, offering unique metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology perspectives. These philosophical traditions have influenced not only Indian thought but also global philosophical discourse, fostering dialogue and exchange across cultural boundaries.
• Social Customs and Traditions: Hindu rituals, festivals, and social customs are deeply ingrained in Indian society, fostering a sense of community, continuity, and spiritual connection. Practices such as puja (worship), samskaras (life-cycle rituals), and sankirtan (devotional singing) serve as avenues for cultural expression and spiritual devotion.
• Cultural Expressions and Performing Arts: Indian classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, and Kuchipudi are infused with Hindu mythology and spirituality themes, serving as mediums for storytelling, expression, and devotion. Hindu themes, symbols, and metaphors have enriched music, poetry, and literature in Sanskrit, Tamil, Hindi, and Bengali languages.
• Diaspora Communities and Global Influence: Hinduism has transcended geographical boundaries, with millions of adherents forming vibrant diaspora communities worldwide. The spread of yoga, meditation, Ayurveda, and vegetarianism reflects the global influence of Hindu spirituality and holistic wellness practices.

Contemporary Challenges and Responses

In the contemporary context, Hinduism faces various challenges that necessitate thoughtful responses from practitioners, scholars, and leaders. Here are some of the key challenges and potential responses:

1. Secularism and Religious Pluralism

• Challenge: In pluralistic societies, maintaining the principles of secularism while preserving Hinduism’s cultural and religious identity can be challenging.
• Response: Emphasize the inclusive and pluralistic nature of Hinduism, promoting dialogue, understanding, and respect for diverse religious beliefs and practices.

2. Hinduism in the Modern World

• Challenge: The rapid pace of globalization , technological advancements, and societal changes present new opportunities and challenges for Hindu communities worldwide.
• Response: Adapt traditional teachings and practices to address contemporary issues such as environmental sustainability, social justice , and ethical dilemmas posed by technological advancements.

3. Addressing Social Issues

• Challenge: Persistent social issues such as caste discrimination, gender inequality , poverty, and social injustice continue to affect Hindu society.
• Response: Advocate for social reforms, education, and awareness programs that promote equality, social justice, and empowerment of marginalized communities within Hinduism.

4. Interfaith Dialogue and Harmony

• Challenge: Interfaith tensions and conflicts between religious communities can arise due to misunderstandings, stereotypes, and historical grievances.
• Response: Engage in interfaith dialogue, collaborative initiatives, and mutual respect to promote understanding, cooperation, and peaceful coexistence among diverse religious groups.

5. Preservation of Cultural Heritage

• Challenge: Rapid urbanization, modernization, and globalization threaten the preservation of Hindu cultural heritage, sacred sites, and traditional practices.
• Response: Undertake efforts to document, preserve, and promote Hindu cultural heritage, including ancient temples, art forms, rituals, and languages , through education, advocacy, and conservation initiatives.

6. Promoting Ethics and Values

• Challenge: Ethical dilemmas, moral relativism, and materialistic values challenge Hinduism’s ethical foundations and moral teachings.
• Response: Emphasize the ethical teachings of Hindu scriptures, including principles of ahimsa (non-violence), dharma (duty), karma (action), and seva (selfless service), to guide individuals in making ethical choices and leading virtuous lives.

7. Role of Hinduism in Promoting Peace

• Challenge: Political conflicts, religious extremism, and communal tensions threaten peace and stability in various regions with Hindu populations.
• Response: Advocate for peacebuilding, reconciliation, and conflict resolution efforts rooted in the principles of compassion, tolerance, and non-violence espoused by Hinduism.

With its ancient roots and profound teachings, Hinduism continues to guide cultural, spiritual, and ethical landscapes. Despite facing contemporary challenges, such as social issues and the need for adaptation to a rapidly changing world, Hinduism offers a resilient framework. Through introspection, dialogue, and an emphasis on timeless values, Hindu communities can contribute to global harmony, peace, and understanding. The enduring wisdom of Hindu philosophy serves as a beacon, inspiring individuals to navigate the complexities of the modern era while upholding the timeless principles of compassion, righteousness, and spiritual enlightenment.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Hinduism and hindu art.

Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi

Standing Four-Armed Vishnu

Linga with Face of Shiva (Ekamukhalinga)

Standing Parvati

Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja)

Standing Ganesha

Standing Female Deity, probably Durga

Ardhanarishvara (Composite of Shiva and Parvati)

Vaikuntha Vishnu

Krishna on Garuda

Durga as Slayer of the Buffalo Demon Mahishasura

Seated Ganesha

Kneeling Female Figure

Hanuman Conversing

The Goddess Durga Slaying the Demon Buffalo Mahisha

Loving Couple (Mithuna)

Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Shaiva Saint

Vidya Dehejia Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University

February 2007

According to the Hindu view, there are four goals of life on earth, and each human being should aspire to all four. Everyone should aim for dharma , or righteous living; artha , or wealth acquired through the pursuit of a profession; kama , or human and sexual love; and, finally, moksha , or spiritual salvation.

This holistic view is reflected as well as in the artistic production of India. Although a Hindu temple is dedicated to the glory of a deity and is aimed at helping the devotee toward moksha , its walls might justifiably contain sculptures that reflect the other three goals of life. It is in such a context that we may best understand the many sensuous and apparently secular themes that decorate the walls of Indian temples.

Hinduism is a religion that had no single founder, no single spokesman, no single prophet. Its origins are mixed and complex. One strand can be traced back to the sacred Sanskrit literature of the Aryans, the Vedas, which consist of hymns in praise of deities who were often personifications of the natural elements. Another strand drew on the beliefs prevalent among groups of indigenous peoples, especially the faith in the power of the mother goddess and in the efficacy of fertility symbols. Hinduism, in the form comparable to its present-day expression, emerged at about the start of the Christian era, with an emphasis on the supremacy of the god Vishnu, the god Shiva, and the goddess Shakti (literally, “Power”).

The pluralism evident in Hinduism, as well as its acceptance of the existence of several deities, is often puzzling to non-Hindus. Hindus suggest that one may view the Infinite as a diamond of innumerable facets. One or another facet—be it Rama, Krishna, or Ganesha—may beckon an individual believer with irresistible magnetism. By acknowledging the power of an individual facet and worshipping it, the believer does not thereby deny the existence of many aspects of the Infinite and of varied paths toward the ultimate goal.

Deities are frequently portrayed with multiple arms, especially when they are engaged in combative acts of cosmic consequence that involve destroying powerful forces of evil. The multiplicity of arms emphasizes the immense power of the deity and his or her ability to perform several feats at the same time. The Indian artist found this a simple and an effective means of expressing the omnipresence and omnipotence of a deity. Demons are frequently portrayed with multiple heads to indicate their superhuman power. The occasional depiction of a deity with more than one head is generally motivated by the desire to portray varying aspects of the character of that deity. Thus, when the god Shiva is portrayed with a triple head, the central face indicates his essential character and the flanking faces depict his fierce and blissful aspects.

The Hindu Temple Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in India . Thus, if one speaks of Indian architecture without taking note of the lavish sculptured decoration with which monuments are covered, a partial and distorted picture is presented. In the Hindu temple , large niches in the three exterior walls of the sanctum house sculpted images that portray various aspects of the deity enshrined within. The sanctum image expresses the essence of the deity. For instance, the niches of a temple dedicated to a Vishnu may portray his incarnations; those of a temple to Shiva , his various combative feats; and those of a temple to the Great Goddess, her battles with various demons. Regional variations exist, too; in the eastern state of Odisha, for example, the niches of a temple to Shiva customarily contain images of his family—his consort, Parvati, and their sons, Ganesha, the god of overcoming obstacles, and warlike Skanda.

The exterior of the halls and porch are also covered with figural sculpture. A series of niches highlight events from the mythology of the enshrined deity, and frequently a place is set aside for a variety of other gods. In addition, temple walls feature repeated banks of scroll-like foliage, images of women, and loving couples known as mithunas . Signifying growth, abundance, and prosperity, they were considered auspicious motifs.

Dehejia, Vidya. “Hinduism and Hindu Art.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/hind/hd_hind.htm (February 2007)

Further Reading

Dehejia, Vidya. Indian Art . London: Phaidon, 1997.

Eck, Diana L. Darsan: Seeing the Divine Image in India. 2d ed . Chamberburg, Pa.: Anima Books, 1985.

Michell, George. The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms. Reprint . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.

Mitter, Partha. Indian Art . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Additional Essays by Vidya Dehejia

• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Buddhism and Buddhist Art .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Recognizing the Gods .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ South Asian Art and Culture .” (February 2007)

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Hinduism: An Introduction

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The term Hinduism is synonymous with the Indian subcontinent, where over eighty percent of the population are of the Hindu faith. Hinduism is a term coined by the ancient Greeks and Persians, which literally means Indian. The Hindus themselves refer to their religion as Sanathana Dharma , the “eternal religion.” While the overwhelming majority of Hindus are concentrated in the Indian subcontinent, there are sizeable pockets of Hindus in North America, Europe, and Africa.

To the student of religion, Hinduism appears as a vast and seemingly complex religious system. Hence, it is almost an impossible task to compress the whole of Hinduism’s 5000-old years of history into a brief essay. However, certain fundamental principles form the core of the religion of the Hindus and will be briefly outlined. These include the Hindu scriptures, the concept of God, and the primary doctrines of Hindu religion and philosophy.

The sacred language of the Hindus is Sanskrit, which is an Indo-European...

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Bibliography

Banerjee, N.N. 1990. Hindu outlook . Calcutta: Hindutva Publications.

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Chennakesavan, S. 1980. A critical study of Hinduism . New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Nikhilananda, Swami. 1968. Hinduism . Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math.

———. 1979. Hinduism at a glance . Calcutta: Ramakrishna Mission.

Radhakrishnan, S. 1974. The Hindu view of life . London: Unwin Books.

Sarma, D.S. 1966. Renascent Hinduism . Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavang.

Zaehner, R.C. 1985. Hinduism . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Sooklal, A. (2021). Hinduism: An Introduction. In: Mudimbe, V.Y., Kavwahirehi, K. (eds) Encyclopedia of African Religions and Philosophy. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-2068-5_171

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Hinduism: Basic Beliefs

The fundamental teaching of Hinduism, or Vedanta, is that a human being's basic nature is not confined to the body or the mind. Beyond both of these is the spirit or the spark of God within the soul.

How did Hinduism begin?

Hinduism or Sanatana Dharma ("eternal spiritual path") began about 4000 years ago in India. It was the religion of an ancient people known as the Aryans ("noble people") whose philosophy, religion, and customs are recorded in their sacred texts known as the Vedas. These texts were initially handed down by word of mouth from teacher to student. It was not until much later that they were actually written down. Archeological evidence from the Indus Valley civilization of northwestern India helps to establish Hinduism as the world's oldest living religion. Today, worldwide, there are almost one billion people professing some aspect of Hinduism. The fundamental teachings of Hinduism, which form the foundation of all its different sects, are contained in the concluding portion of the Vedas, and are therefore known as the Vedanta (the "end or concluding portion of the Vedas"). This part of the Vedas is also known as the Upanishads.

What do Hindus believe and practice?

The fundamental teaching of Hinduism, or Vedanta, is that a human being's basic nature is not confined to the body or the mind. Beyond both of these is the spirit or the spark of God within the soul. This spirit is within us and also within everything we see. All beings and all things are really, in their deepest essence, this pure or divine spirit, full of peace, full of joy and wisdom, ever united with God. This is not just theory, but it can actually be experienced. Anyone who takes the trouble to undergo the necessary training to purify and refine the mind and senses can begin to feel the truth of this. This training can take various forms and is known as yoga ("union"- union of the individual self with this inner spirit).

There are four main types of yoga, meant for the four main types of human temperaments: 

Karma Yoga or the discipline of right actions is for those of active temperament, striving to eliminate selfishness, and to cultivate universal sympathy by seeing the divine reality in all.

Bhakti Yoga is the path of devotion to God whose presence can be felt in all things. God can be worshipped as present in an image in a Temple. God can be worshipped also as present in suffering humanity by service. 

Jnana Yoga , preferred by those of analytical bent of mind, is the discipline of trying to see the divine reality within all things directly, by mentally brushing aside all the obstructing physical and mental coverings that hide it.

Raja Yoga is the process of mental control, purity, and meditation to make the mind very calm and quiet. In that profound quiet, the inner divine light reveals itself.

What are the manifestation(s) God in Hinduism?

What are the different sects of Hinduism?  The general name for God in Hinduism is Brahman. The name of the divine essence within us is Atman. They are one and the same, infinite and eternal. However, God is also present in all creation. God's manifestation in creation goes by many names. It is the one infinite, eternal, Divine Being that is manifesting in countless ways. It is like a person at the same time being called "father" by his son, "friend" by his friend, "son" by his own father, "husband" by his wife, etc. A special relationship goes with each name. So the same Divine Lord has been addressed as Shiva, Vishnu, etc and as Divine Mother, Kali, Durga, etc. God can also manifest as an extraordinary being in human form, who is then known as an incarnation of God, such as Krishna, Rama, etc. Since it is the one infinite God alone that is being looked at in different ways, all these manifestations can be prayed to for help and protection. This is the underlying principle behind all the different sects of Hinduism. Those who prefer a particular manifestation of the divinity will form a sect devoted to the contemplation and worship of that manifestation. All the sects, however, will accept the ancient teachings of the Vedas and the Vedanta as the foundation of their practice.

What is reincarnation?

In this world every cause must have its effect. We are responsible for the results of our actions. Long ages ago, human beings first asked themselves, why are some people born in happy circumstances, whereas others are born to suffer all their lives? The events of this present life are not enough to account for such suffering. To reasonably explain an excess of suffering or of enjoyment in this life, it was assumed that we all have had previous existences, and that we are now reaping the results of those previous actions. It must also be true then that we can take charge of our destiny right now. We can create a better tomorrow by resolving do better actions today. However, as long as desires remain in the mind, the tendency toward rebirth will exist.

What is Maya?

In this life we do not see things very clearly. We are constantly faced with contradictions. Though we know what is right, we have trouble doing it. Our thoughts soar high, but our actions cannot rise to the level of our thoughts. The world is full of misery and injustice; as quickly as we remove some, more seems to rush in to take its place. We are told by the saints, and we also feel, that a loving God is at work in this creation, but we cannot reconcile this with what we see around us. This complex situation in which we find ourselves is called Maya. 

The way out of this, according to Hinduism or Vedanta, is that we are not really seeing the world properly. If we saw it properly, we would see that it is God alone before us. Instead, we superimpose all this complex world on that divine reality.

The illustration given is that of a rope, mistaken in semi-darkness for a snake. The snake of this world frightens us. What is the solution? Bring a light and you will see its real nature. It is only a rope. Likewise, the real nature or essence of this world is divinity alone. Bring the light of spiritual wisdom through yoga, and you will see God alone everywhere. This is what constitutes spiritual freedom or liberation, Moksha. When this knowledge dawns, there is complete satisfaction; no desire remains in the mind, and no further impulse for rebirth remains.

What code of behavior do Hindus follow?

The code of behavior is one's dharma. This is determined by the place in society and the duties associated with it. There are four main social positions or varna; Brahmins (priests and teachers) Kshatriyas (rulers and soldiers), Vaishyas (merchants) and Shudras (workers). 

There are four ideal stages of life described in Hindu scriptures: the student, the family man, the recluse, and the wandering holy man. For most Hindu people these represent a metaphorical path, not an actual path. 

What are the Hindu sacred texts?

Hindu ancient, sacred texts were written in Sanskrit, the language of ancient India. The Vedas are the oldest - about 3000 years old. They are a collection of hymns, prayers, and magic spells. The Upanishads are stories and parables told by gurus (teachers) to their students The Mahabharata is a story of a war between two royal families. The Bhagavad Gita is a very popular part of this text. The Ramayana is a story of the god Rama and the rescue of his wife Sita from Ravana, the evil demon king.

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Hinduism - Free Essay Examples and Topic Ideas

Hinduism, one of the seasoned beliefs, indicated by several academics, by roots and customs going back over 4,000 years. Since the faith has no particular founder, it’s hard to follow the aforementioned starting points. Hinduism is an assembly of various customs and methods of reasoning. Researchers think Hinduism began anywhere near 2300 B.C and 1500 B.C. around the Indus Valley, close to Pakistan. In any case, numerous Hindus contend that their belief is ageless and has consistently existed.

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Content of Vedas

Hindus hold several blessed works instead of one blessed book. The essential holy messages, called the Vedas, created approximately 1500 B.C. This range of choruses and songs was authored in Sanskrit and comprises disclosures by early holy people and thinkers. There are two fundamental classifications of strict messages inside this tremendous range, Shruti (uncovered) and Smrti (recollected). Shruti for the foremost part alludes to the Vedas, the Brahmanas, and therefore the Upanishads; some Hindus additionally demand the Bhagavad Gita as Shruti. Smrti regularly alludes to everything else. Hindus accept that the Vedas rise above unequaled and do not have a start or a conclusion. The era when the Vedas were created got called the ‘Vedic Period’ and kept going from around 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C. Ceremonies, as an example, forfeits and reciting, were regular within the Vedic Era. The literary convention of Hinduism incorporates a practically deep range of oral and composed sacred texts that incorporate fantasies, ceremonies, philosophical hypothesis, reverential sonnets and tunes, neighborhood accounts, etc.

‘Culmination’ of the Vedas

The Vedas structure the establishment of Hinduism, the bedrock whereupon the entire convention is assembled. Even though Hindus of various schools and various organizations regularly adjust to several writings, for all objectives and purposes all Hindus perceive the legitimizing power of the Vedas. They together contain over 1,000 songs of acknowledgment routed to the divine beings, likewise explain directions on the foremost proficient method to steer amends to those tremendous beings, and a huge body of legends. Every Veda, thusly, has four divisions. The essential division is thought to be the Samhita, which is just the Vedic content. The opposite three divisions—the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads—are critiques and elaborations on the essential Vedic content.

Although remembered for the Vedas, the Upanishads are fairly un-Vedic sacred manuscripts. The key Upanishads, of which there are generally thirteen, were presumably created somewhere within the range of 800 and 100 B.C.E. The Upanishads are normally comprehended by the Hindu custom as an expansion of the Vedas; they’re likewise noted, on the entire, as Vedanta, the ‘culmination’ of the Vedas. Be that because it may, the Upanishads fundamentally dismiss a major number of Vedic beliefs and traditions. The Upanishads to a good extent dismiss the various gods of the Vedas, contending that each one amongst the one gets from such custom is progressively material. The elders who created the Upanishads probe for something else—extreme, unceasing salvation. Along these lines, they place a solitary, interminable, generic grand power that quickens and saturates the entire universe—Brahman.

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1 Hinduism and Science

Sangeetha Menon is a Fellow in the School of Humanities at the National Institute of Advanced Studies in Bangalore.

• Published: 02 September 2009
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Hinduism represents the religion and philosophy that originated in India. It is the religion of 16 per cent of the world's population, and India is home to more than 90 per cent of the world's Hindus. Today many historians and philosophers of science have started reviewing the dynamic events and historical processes that led to what is called the European Enlightenment and modern science. This article focuses on how Hinduism as a religion has coexisted with scientific pursuits, the underpinnings of such partnerships, and the significant contributions of such dialogues to the current engagements between science and spirituality. The discussion follows how apparently different enterprises of experience and reporting of experience were given a common space, as well as what the areas of convergence are that Hinduism posits for dialogues between and within science and spirituality. The article particularly looks at the Vedantic (Upanishads) tradition.

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Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology

Overview Essay

Hinduism: Devotional Love of the World

David L. Haberman, Indiana University

Originally published in the Routledge Handbook of Religion and Ecology

There is an outright assault on virtually every aspect of Earth’s ecosystems these days: rivers are severely polluted, forests are razed at alarming rates, and mountains are demolished for a variety of industrial purposes.  Enormous damage has already been done to meet the ever-increasing demands of a rapidly growing globalized consumer culture.  We are now gearing up to inflict even greater damage as we prepare to harvest all remaining resources and to squeeze every last drop of fossil fuel from the planet.  At the same time, there seems to be a new planetary awakening that seeks ways beyond our current unsustainable predicament to a healthier human presence on Earth, and religious traditions worldwide are increasingly contributing to this movement.  How do people within the Hindu religious cultures of India regard and struggle with these challenges?  Relatedly, how are natural entities such as rivers, trees, and mountains conceived within these cultures, and what kinds of practices are found within them that might serve to address the unprecedented environmental degradation of our day?

The term Hinduism is a complex one.  Originally used by Persians to denote the religious ways of people who lived on the other side of the Indus River, today it is the accepted designation of a vast array of religious beliefs and practices of the majority of the Indian population.  As in the case of every world religion, it is more accurate to speak not of a single Hinduism, but rather of a rich multiplicity of Hinduisms.  Past overviews of Hinduism and ecology have tended to focus on the philosophical texts and practices of the ascetic traditions. [1]   The notable work of Christopher Chapple, for example, highlights the contributions that the Hindu renouncer values of minimal consumption might make toward an environmentally friendly ethic (Chapple 1998).  While these values are significant in considering ecological possibilities within Hinduism, I find myself in agreement with Vasudha Narayanan who has pressed for a shift away from an emphasis on the ascetic traditions in our understanding of Hinduism and ecology to the bhakti devotional texts and rituals, since “devotional ( bhakti ) exercises seem to be the greatest potential resource for ecological activists in India” (Narayanan 2001, 202). I propose to take up this recommendation with a presentation of a popular mode of Hinduism and ecology that has received little academic attention in general works on religion and ecology.  This essay is not intended to be a survey, but rather a representation of a fairly widespread form of religiously informed ecological activism that I have encountered both explicitly and implicitly in my explorations of Hinduism and ecology (Haberman 2006, 2013).

Before examining some contemporary instances of Hindu ecological engagement, I briefly take up the question, “Is Hinduism eco-friendly?”  We would be justified in rejecting this question altogether, for it is a simplistic and misleading formulation that both reduces a complex tradition and calls for an answer never intended by any tradition.  Like all world religious traditions, Hinduism is a multifaceted cultural phenomenon that consists of many varied and sometimes contradictory voices.  There is evidence for what could be identified as ecologically damaging views and practices within Hinduism, and there is evidence for what could be identified as ecologically friendly views and practices within Hinduism.  Questioning the concept of the “oriental ecologist,” Ole Bruun and Arne Kalland have argued that Asian philosophies have done little to prevent environmental disasters in a number of Asian societies (Bruun and Kalland 1995, 2-3).  Nonetheless, while acknowledging some aspects of Hinduism have been detrimental to the environment, a number of writers have maintained that Hinduism has much to contribute to addressing the environmental crisis.  Rita Dasgupta Sherma, for example, insists, “In the case of Hinduism, resources exist for the development of a vision that could promote ecological action” (Sherma 1998, 89-90).

We must keep in mind, however, that the current scope of the environmental crisis is a drastically new experience that demands new responses; no religious tradition in its present form is fully prepared to address the current problems.  Poul Pedersen reminds us, “No Buddhist, Hindu, or Islamic scriptures contain concepts like ‘environmental crisis,’ ‘ecosystems,’ or ‘sustainable development,’ or concepts corresponding to them.  To insist that they do is to deny the immense cultural distance that separates traditional religious conceptions of the environment from modern ecological knowledge” (Pedersen 1995, 226). [2]   Religious traditions are always changing in the face of new historical circumstances, and one of the greatest challenges today is the environmental crisis, which is already reshaping religious traditions worldwide.  With these precautions in mind, we can proceed to examine an emerging ecological development within Hindu India and those dimensions of the tradition that might serve as resources for those who employ a Hindu cultural perspective in their struggle with the environmental crisis.

Past representations of Hinduism that were heavily dependent on the ascetic philosophy of Shankaracharya’s Advaita Vedanta often ignored Hinduism’s most common aspect: the devotional cultures of India that focus on interaction with embodied forms of divinity and generally promote a very positive view of the world. To explore what this theistic Hinduism means for environmental thought and action, it would be useful to examine the views expressed in the Bhagavad Gita.  This popular text gives representative expression to concepts that inform much theistic Hinduism.  The Bhagavad Gita has also been important for many involved in early environmental movements in India, especially those influenced by Gandhi who used it for daily meditations. [3] Well-known environmental activists in India, such as the Himalayan forest defenders, have organized readings of the Bhagavad Gita as part of their strategy for environmental protection, and some have used it to articulate a specifically Hindu ecological philosophy. [4]   One can even find examples of such use of the Bhagavad Gita in science-based environmental publications such as Down to Earth , a periodical published by the Centre for Science and Environment in New Delhi. [5]   Most importantly for our considerations, the Bhagavad Gita provides a theological framework for understanding the religious thought that informs much devotionally based environmentalism within Hinduism. [6]

Like Narayanan, I too have found a preeminence of bhakti rituals and devotional texts in my studies of Hinduism, nature and ecology; my comments, therefore, focus on certain devotional beliefs and practices that relate to environmental conceptions, concerns, and practices.  One of the major debates between the ascetic and devotional traditions relates to the status of the world we experience with our senses.  While many of the ascetic traditions teach that the phenomenal world is ultimately an illusion to be transcended, the devotional traditions have tended to affirm the reality of the world, often honored as a divine manifestation.  The position of the Bhagavad Gita is relevant.  Narayanan explains that, “central to the Bhagavadgita is the vision of the universe as the body of Krishna” (Narayanan 2001, 185).  

To introduce a common way of thinking about Hinduism and environmentalism in present-day practice, I highlight four Sanskrit terms prevalent in discourse about conceptualizations of and interaction with natural entities. Since all four terms begin with an “ s ,” I refer to them as the four “ s ”s.  Although all of these terms are drawn from the Bhagavad Gita, they are used generally in Hindu discussions about ecology and the natural environment and come up frequently during conversations about environmental activism in India.  The form of environmental activism represented by these terms is not well known outside of India; nonetheless it is quite popular within India, as it is firmly rooted in the devotional practices that center on worshipful interaction with embodied forms of divinity.  The first term, sarvatma-bhava , has to do with the worldview that informs much environmental activism within Hindu culture; the second, svarupa , relates to the devotional object of environmental activism; the third, seva , is increasingly used to denote environmental activism itself; and the fourth, sambandha , identifies the desired outcome of the action.

Among the four terms sarvatma-bhava is perhaps the least utilized in everyday language, but the notion it signifies is prevalent within Hinduism.  It is a technical compound word that proclaims that everything is part of a unified and radically interconnected reality, called alternatively Atman or Brahman, and refers to the largely accepted viewpoint that all is sacred.  In common parlance, this is often expressed theologically as God is everything and everything is God.  This is a concept with deep roots in many Hindu scriptures.  The highly influential Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, for example, declares, “the whole world is Brahman” (1.4).  Granted most Hindus do not have detailed knowledge of Upanishadic texts, but this is an idea that is expressed repeatedly in many later texts and everyday discussions about religion. The better-known Bhagavad Gita states this notion most succinctly in the concise declaration: “Vasudeva (Krishna) is the entire world” (7.19).  Without necessarily referencing texts such as these, many people articulate a similar notion while discussing the relationship between the world and Krishna.  “Everything in this world is a part of Krishna and therefore worthy of reverence ( pujaniya ),” a man explained to me while discussing the natural landscape.

Early foundational texts, such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, also asserted that there are two aspects of ultimate reality or Brahman: one is identified with all forms ( murta ), and the other is identified with the realm of the formless ( amurta ) (2.3).  Brahman as all forms is everything that is manifest and transitory, whereas Brahman as the formless is unmanifest and unchanging.  These are not two separate realities, but rather different modes of the same unified reality.  Although most people are not directly familiar with the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, they are conversant with this principle.  A Hindi-speaking woman expressed this concept theologically: “Some people think of God as with form ( sakar ), and others think of God as formless ( nirakar ).  These are just different ways of thinking of God, but God is one ( Bhagavan ek hi hai. ).”  

The Bhagavad Gita confirms these two aspects of ultimate reality, and adds a third that encompasses and surpasses both: the divine personality called Purushottama.  Devotional traditions aim to establish a relationship with this supreme form.  Although these three dimensions of reality are regarded in a hierarchical fashion, it is important to remember that all three are aspects of divinity, in this instance Krishna.  That is, while it is assumed to be only a portion of a much vaster and unmanifest reality, the entire manifest world of multiple forms that we perceive with our senses is fully divine.  While manifestly diverse, the sense of reality denoted by sarvatma - bhava is that everything is also simultaneously interconnected and unified; in short, the entire world is divine.  The tripartite conception of reality is at the very core of many Hindu schools of thought, and is considered to be the vital foundation for all spiritual development and productive work in the world.  It is also important for understanding specific forms of devotional environmentalism in India.   

Though the whole world is divine, human beings are not good at connecting with abstract universalities.  We are embodied beings designed to connect with concrete particularities.  Universal love is a noble sentiment, for example, but it cannot begin to compare to the passionate engagement of the intimate love of a particular person.  Acknowledging this feature of human emotions and perception leads to the next “ s ”: svarupa .  The term svarupa has an expedient double meaning.  It literally means “own-form,” and in theological contexts frequently refers to the deity’s own form or an essential manifestation of God, and is understood to refer to a full presence of divinity.  An aspect of the highest reality, it comes to mean a specific embodied form divinity takes in the world.  Divinity within Hinduism is typically understood to be infinite and all pervasive, but assumes particular concrete forms; accordingly, although unified at the unmanifest level, it manifests as a multitude of individual entities.  The second meaning of the term svarupa is the worshiper’s own form of divinity.  The divine unified reality of Brahman is everywhere and everything, but one’s svarupa is a personal and approachable concrete “handle” on the infinite; it is that distinct, intimate form of divinity to which one is especially attracted.  That is, among the countless multitude of forms, this is the particular one to which a person is drawn and develops a special relationship. The particular physical forms of divinity that are svarupa s importantly include many natural phenomena, such as rivers, ponds, rocks, mountains, trees and forests.  Everything in the world is understood to be a potential svarupa , but there are natural entities that are favored through cultural selection. Specific examples would include rivers, such as the Yamuna, Ganges, and Narmada; sacred trees such as neem, pipal, and banyan; and mountains such as Govardhan and Arunachal.  And all svarupa s are comprised of the three interrelated dimensions of reality.  The form dimension of the Yamuna, for example, is the physical water of the river, the formless is the all-pervasive spiritual dimension, and the divine personality is the goddess Yamuna Devi. The form dimension of Mount Govardhan is the concrete rocky hill, the formless is the all-pervasive undifferentiated dimension, and the divine personality is Krishna in the form of Shri Govardhana Natha-ji.

Recognized as a special form of divine vitality, awareness of the full nature of the svarupa is considered by many to be a key component to beneficial environmental attitudes and actions.  The physical svarupa of a neem tree, for example, is connected with her goddess identity.  A woman who worships a particular neem tree everyday in Varanasi told me: “Ma’s powerful presence is in this tree.  This tree is her svarupa .  I worship her here everyday and now have a special relationship with this tree” (Haberman 2013, 144).  Accordingly, she – as well as many others who share her understanding – would never think of harming or cutting a neem tree.  The svarupa of the Yamuna River too is associated with her divine identity.  A man who lives in a town located on the shore of this river links an awareness of this identity to current environmental concerns: “The people who are not aware of the svarupa are polluting her.  If we could get people to see the goddess in the river, they would worship her and stop polluting her.  People who don't understand the svarupa of Yamuna-ji are polluting her.  We must make them understand the real nature of Yamuna-ji, and then they will stop polluting” (Haberman 2006, 187).  I observed a group of villagers living at the base of Mount Govardhan stop a man from even putting a shovel into the soil of the mountain to plant a tree, so great was their concern for the sensitive personality of the mountain.

How does one connect with a svarupa ?   This question leads to another of the four “ s ”s: seva , a term that means concrete acts of “loving service” or simply “acts of love.” In the context of the religious culture associated with natural sacred entities a few decades ago, the word seva would have referred almost exclusively to ritual acts of honorific worship, such as offering flowers, hymns, and incense.  However, in this age of pollution this term is increasingly being used to designate acts that would in the West be labeled “environmental activism.”  For example, previously it was assumed that Yamuna was a powerful and protective Mother who cared for her human children, but now there is a growing conviction that her children need to care for her.  The term used for this care is seva, loving actions that now take a variety of forms – from picking garbage out of the river to political and legal action aimed to protect it. 

In these bhakti traditions, love has two aspects: feelings and actions, and these two are significantly interconnected.  Feelings set actions in motion, and actions engender further feelings.  Since feelings are more difficult to access than actions, actions are the entryway into an ever-expanding circle of love.  Moreover, the specialness of a being is revealed in the presence of love; while we shrink back into a protective shell when confronted with hostility, we come out and expose ourselves more fully in the presence of love.  Likewise, the deep sacrality of the world reveals itself only in the face of love.  Awareness of the true nature ( svarupa ) of something generates love for it, and that love enables one to see that true nature more clearly.  Loving acts toward a being generate loving feelings toward that being – rivers, trees, and mountains included – which motivate more loving acts.  This point was driven home to me one day while watching a young man perform acts of worshipful seva to the Yamuna River.  He told me about the transformation in his own life that led him to become a daily worshiper of Yamuna.  “I used to see Yamuna-ji as an ordinary polluted river.  I used to wear my sandals down to her bank (He now views this as a grave insult.).  But then I met my guru, and he told me to start worshipping Yamuna-ji.  At first I was a little resistant, but I did what he said.  Soon, I began to see her svarupa (true form) and realized how wonderful she really is.  So now I worship her everyday with love.  The main benefit of worshipping Yamuna-ji is an ever-expanding love” (Haberman 2006, 185).

Most importantly for ecological considerations, those who reflect on the environmental crisis from this viewpoint say that this deep perspective is the one most needed to restore a healthy relationship with the world.  For the devotees of Yamuna immersed in this perspective, this means opening oneself to the river to the point where one can perceive the svarupa of Yamuna.  Once this occurs, polluting the river becomes as impossible as dumping garbage on the face of one’s lover.  Worshipful acts, then, are the very doorway into an inner world of realization; they are concrete levers for opening up new perspectives that lead to environmental awareness and activism.  While environmental degradation, I was told again and again, is the result of a very limited perspective on the world, many devotees stressed that a positive and ecologically healthy relationship with the natural world depends on a loving awareness of its true nature, or svarupa , which is realized through loving acts of seva .  An awareness of the true nature of reality leads one into a world of divine love wherein destruction and pollution become unthinkable.

Love, therefore, is both a means and an end.  The Hindu eco-theologian Shrivatsa Goswami maintains that, “Love is the key to all sustainability” (Haberman 2006, 157).  Many environmental activists I spoke with in India articulated their actions as expressions of love. The environmental activist Sunderlal Bahuguna, who worked many years attempting to stop the Tehri Dam on a major Himalayan branch of the Ganges River, told me that his work was motivated by devotional love: “I love rivers because they are God; they are our Mother.  In our philosophy we see God in all nature: mountains, rivers, springs, and other natural forms” (Haberman 2006, 71).  And love for Mount Arunachal as an essential form of Shiva led Ramana Maharshi and his followers to protect the sacred hill from developmental plans and to initiate its reforestation.

The love generated in seva , then, leads not only to a joyful realization of the true form of the “object” of that seva , but also to a deep concern for it. Because of his sentiments toward Yamuna, a pilgrimage priest who resides near the Yamuna River in Mathura experienced much pain while confronting the massive pollution of the river.  “When people come to Mathura and see the condition of the Yamuna,” he reports, “it hurts them and they leave with a broken heart.”  This man’s anguish spurred him into environmental action aimed at cleansing the river.  “When Mother is sick,” he explained, “one cannot throw her out of the house.  We must help her.  Therefore, I do Yamuna seva ” (Haberman 2006, 144).   Seva , or loving service, was a word I heard many times in conversations with environmental activists working to restore the Yamuna to health.  This activist priest, who organized demonstrations to raise awareness of the plight of the Yamuna and was the primary instigator of a successful court case that imposed a ban on the release of untreated domestic sewage and industrial effluents into the Yamuna in the Mathura District, represents his environmental activism with this religious term, as do many others in India. For him, restoring the river is a deeply religious act, performed not primarily for the benefit of humans, but for the river herself.

The culminating result of this divine love affair is a firm “connection” or “relationship” with some aspect of the sacred world. This relationship is called sambandha – the final “ s ”. Worshipful acts of seva designed to honor a particular being have the additional effect of stimulating a deeper loving connection – sambandha – with that being.  As a recipient of loving acts of seva , natural entities such as rivers, trees, and stones from sacred mountains are typically personified and sometimes even adorned in an anthropomorphic manner.  The Yamuna River is draped from shore to shore with a long decorative cloth made from 108 colorful saris on her birthday and other special occasions.  Neem trees in Varanasi are wrapped with ornate cloth and humanlike facemasks are attached to the trunks at eye level.  Faces with prominent eyes are also added to stones from Mount Govardhan, which are then adorned with clothing and jewelry.  Worshipers of these natural entities report that this seva practice is more than a way of honoring the natural entity; they also do this to develop and enhance an intimate relationship with the svarupa . 

A neem tree worshiper told me: “The face makes darshan (sight) of the goddess easier.  The tree is the goddess, but it is easier to have a relationship with the goddess if a face is there.  It is easier to see the goddess in the tree, or the tree as the goddess with a face on it” (Haberman 2013, 154).  Many tree worshipers report that the face helps them recognize and better bond with the goddess of the neem tree: “When I look into the face of the goddess on the tree,” one woman explained, “I feel a strong connection ( sambandha ) with this tree” (Haberman 2013, 154).  Worshipers who add faces to stones from Mount Govardhan, which are understood to be naturally embodied forms of Krishna, express similar notions. One told me that this practice “makes it easier to perceive the svarupa , to see the stone as Krishna.”   Another said: “When you put eyes and face on a Govardhan stone you feel it is a person.  It is easier to see the stone as a person with the face and clothing added.  Putting eyes and other ornamentations on the stone makes its personality more perceptible.  This makes a loving relationship with the svarupa more possible.” 

In this context, anthropomorphism seems to function as an intentional cultural means of connecting positively with the nonhuman world.  Current research by social psychologists seems to corroborate the notion that anthropomorphism can function as a means of establishing connection with some nonhuman entity, and that this connection leads to a greater concern for the anthropomorphized agent’s well-being (Epley 2008).  This claim has been confirmed by a group of Hong Kong based psychological researchers who have published a study which demonstrates that anthropomorphizing enhances connectedness to natural entities, and that this results in a stronger commitment to conservation behavior (Tam 2013).

Those who see the Yamuna as a divine goddess are less prone to polluting the river and more committed to restoring it; those who see trees as divine personalities avoid harming them and oversee their protection; and devotees of Mount Govardhan don’t dig into the mountain and some have worked to safeguard it from extractive exploitation.  But how relevant is the concern for a single natural entity toward the larger ethical concern for all such entities?  The possibility of this mode of devotional environmentalism opening out to a more universal ethic was highlighted for me during an instructive conversation.  One day I visited a large pipal tree shrine in Varanasi and there met a sadhvi , a female practitioner who had renounced ordinary domestic life to devote herself to spiritual pursuits.  At one point in our conversation she explained what she thought was the real value of worshiping a tree.  “From the heartfelt worship of a single tree one can see the divinity in that tree and feel love for it.  After some time, with knowledge one can then see the divinity in all trees.  Really, in all life.  All life is sacred because God is everywhere and in everything.  This tree is a svarupa of Vasudeva (Krishna).  As it says in the Bhagavad Gita, from devotion to a svarupa (one’s own particular form of God) comes awareness of the vishvarupa (universal form of God)” (Haberman 2013, 197).  In brief, this knowledgeable woman was advancing the idea that the worship of a particular has the possibility of expanding to a more reverent attitude toward the universal.  Regarding trees, her point was that the worship of a particular tree could lead to the realization of the sacrality of all trees – and by extension, of everything. 

With the comprehension of the universal via the particular we return full circle to the notion of sarvatma-bhava , the idea that everything is sacred. What first began as a proposition is now directly realized in experience.  Many within Hindu religious traditions maintain that it is precisely a reawakening to this deep sacred quality of all life that is the foundation for establishing a more sustainable human presence on the planet. The notions related to the Bhagavad Gita’s four “ s ’s” are deeply embedded in Hindu devotionalism.  Here, then, is a potential resource that is already in place within popular Hindu culture for an emerging environmental practice and ethic that can extend loving care to all of life.

Ahmed K., Kashyap S., and Sinha S. (2000) “Pollution of Hinduism” Down to Earth Science and Environment Fortnightly published by Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi (February 15 th edition) 27-37.  Also now available online at: http://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/pollution-of-hinduisim-17622 .

Bruun O. and Kalland A. (1995) “Images of nature: an introduction to the study of man-environment relations in Asia” in Bruun O. and Kalland A. eds. Asian perceptions of nature Curzon Press, Richmond, UK 1-24.

Chapple C. (1998) “Toward an indigenous Indian environmentalism” in Nelson L. ed. Purifying the earthly body of God: religion and ecology in Hindu India State University of New York Press, Albany 13-37.

Chapple C. and Tucker M. eds. (2000) Hinduism and ecology Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Epley N., Waytz A., Akalis S., and Cacioppo J. (2008) “When we need a human: motivational determinants of anthropomorphism” Social Cognition 26:2, 143-55.

Gadgil M. and Guha R. (1995) Ecology and equity Penguin Books, New Delhi.

Guha R. (1998) “Mahatma Gandhi and the environmental movement in India” in Kalland A. and Persoon G. eds. Environmental movements in Asia Curzon Press, Richmond, UK 65-82.

Guha R. (1999) The unquiet woods: Ecological change and peasant resistance in the Himalaya Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Haberman D. (2006) River of love in an age of pollution: The Yamuna River of northern India University of California Press, Berkeley.

Haberman D. (2013) People trees: Worship of trees in northern India Oxford University Press, New York.

Jacobsen K. (1996) “Bhagavadgita, Ecosophy T, and deep ecology” Inquiry 39:2, 219-38.

Naess A. (1995) “Self-Realization: an ecological approach to being in the world” in Drengson A. and Yuichi I. eds. The Deep Ecology Movement: An introductory anthology North Atlantic Books, Berkeley 13-30.

Narayanan V. (2001) “Water, wood, and wisdom: ecological perspectives from the Hindu tradition” Daedalus 130:4, 179-206.

Nelson L. ed. (1998) Purifying the earthly body of God: Religion and ecology in Hindu India State University of New York Press, Albany.

Nelson L. (2000) “Reading the Bhagavadgita from an ecological perspective” in Chapple C. and Tucker M. eds. Hinduism and ecology Harvard University Press, Cambridge 127-64.

Pedersen P. (1995) “Nature, religion, and cultural identity: the religious environmental paradigm in Asia” in Bruun O. and Kalland A. eds. Asian perceptions of nature Curzon Press, Richmond, UK 258-76.

Sherma R. (1998) “Sacred immanence: reflections on ecofeminism in Hindu Tantra” in Nelson L. ed. Purifying the earthly body of God: Religion and ecology in Hindu India State University of New York Press, Albany 89-131.

Tam K., Lee S., and Chao M. (2013) “Saving Mr. Nature: Anthropomorphism enhances connectedness to and protectiveness toward nature” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 49:3 514-21.

Tomalin E. (2004) “Bio-divinity and biodiversity: Perspectives on religion and environmental conservation in India” Numen 51:3 265-95. 

Tomalin E. (2009) Biodivinity and biodiversity: The limits to religious environmentalism Ashgate, Farnham, UK.

[1] In addition to numerous articles and several monographs, former studies of Hinduism and ecology include two useful volumes of essays written by various scholars (Chapple and Tucker 2000, Nelson 1998).

[2] More recently Emma Tomalin has argued for a distinction between what she calls bio-divinity and environmental concerns.  Bio-divinity refers to the notion that nature is infused with divinity.  This is an idea that has been current in India for a long time; the environmental crisis, however, is relatively new, as are the concerns related to it.  Tomalin insists, therefore, that “there is an immense difference between the priorities and concerns of the modern environmentalist and the world-views of much earlier Hindu sages, poets, and philosophers” (Tomalin, 2004, 267).  This does not mean, however, that aspects of Hinduism cannot be interpreted to support contemporary environmental thinking and action. As Tomalin recognizes, “Religious traditions constantly re-invent themselves precisely through making claims about the past in order to accommodate new ideas” (268). Sacred views of nature in India might indeed now be very useful as a resource to promote the protection and care of the environment.  In fact, this is precisely what is currently taking place.  Tomalin has also published a book expanding on this subject (2009).

[3] Ramachandra Guha maintains that “it is probably fair to say that the life and practice of Gandhi have been the single most important influence on the Indian environmental movement” (1998, 65-66).  The Norwegian philosopher and founder of deep ecology, Arne Naess, was greatly influenced by Gandhi; he took the conceptually central term “Self-Realization” from Gandhi, who in turn took it from the Bhagavad Gita (Naess 1995).

[4] See Guha (1999, 162).  The environmental activist and Chipko spokesperson Sunderlal Bahuguna frequently quotes from the Bhagavad Gita to support his own ecological theology.  The Chipko Movement and Bahuguna have been key sources for the Indian environmental movement. “Indeed, the origins of the Indian environmental movement can be fairly ascribed to that most celebrated of forest conflicts, the Chipko movement of the central Himalaya” (Gadgil and Guha 1995, 84).

[5] “Conserve ecology or perish – this in short, is one of the messages of the Gita , one of the most important scriptures of the Vedic way of life now known as Hinduism” (Ahmed, Kashyap, and Sinha 2000, 28).

[6] Two recent publications based on Shankaracharaya’s reading of the Bhagavad Gita challenge the validity of this position of the Bhagavad Gita (Jabobsen 1996, Nelson 2000).   See my own critical assessment of these articles (Haberman 2006, 29-37).

Header photo credit: ©Chris Chapple, Floral ceremonial offerings, Haridwar, India

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Hinduism and Islam

Hinduism and christianity, diasporic hinduism.

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Hindu relations with Islam and Christianity are in some ways quite different from the ties and tensions that bind together religions of Indian origin. Hindus live with a legacy of domination by Muslim and Christian rulers that stretches back many centuries—in northern India , to the Delhi sultanate established at the beginning of the 13th century. The patterns of relationship between Hindus and Muslims have been different between north and south India. While there is a history of conquest and domination in the north, Hindu-Muslim relations in Kerala and Tamil Nadu have been peaceful. Islam came to south India very early, possibly about the 7th century, through traders and sea routes. There is a vast body of literature on Islam in Tamil composed over almost a thousand years. The early 19th-century Sira Puranam , a biography of the Prophet Muhammad , is an excellent example. There are also hundreds of shared ritual spaces, called dargah s (literally, “doorway” or “threshold”), for Hindus and Muslims. These mark shrines for revered Muslim (frequently Sufi ) leaders and are visited by both Muslims and Hindus. Moreover, close proximity and daily interaction throughout the centuries has led to efforts to accommodate the existence of the two religions. One manifestation of such coexistence occurred among some devotional groups who believed that one God, or the “universal principle,” was the same regardless of whether it was called Allah or brahman . Various syntheses between the two religions that emphasize nonsectarianism have arisen in northern India.

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Yet there were periods when the political ambitions of Islamic rulers took strength from iconoclastic aspects of Muslim teaching and led to the devastation of many major Hindu temple complexes, from Mathura and Varanasi (Banaras) in the north to Chidambaram, Sriringam, and Madurai in the far south; other temples were converted to mosques. Episodically, since the 14th century this history has provided rhetorical fuel for Hindu anger against Muslim rulers. The bloody partition of the South Asian subcontinent into India and Pakistan in 1947 added a new dimension. Mobilizing Hindu sensibilities about the sacredness of the land as a whole, Hindus have sometimes depicted the creation of Pakistan as a dismemberment of the body of India, in the process demonizing Muslims who have remained within India’s political boundaries.

These strands converged at the end of the 20th century in a campaign to destroy the mosque built in 1528 by a lieutenant of the Mughal emperor Bābur in Ayodhya , a city that has traditionally been identified as the place where Rama was born and ruled. In 1992 militant Hindu nationalists from throughout India, who had been organized by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP; “World Hindu Council”), the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS; “National Volunteer Alliance”), and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP; “Indian People’s Party”), destroyed the mosque in an effort to “liberate” Rama and establish a huge “ Rama’s Birthplace Temple ” on the spot. The continuing tensions in the Kashmir region have also spawned outbursts of sectarian violence on both sides, including the destruction of some Hindu temples there by militant Muslims. Yet, although the relationship between Hindus and Muslims within India remains complicated and there are occasional eruptions of tension and violence, in many areas they have been able to coexist peacefully.

Relations between Hinduism and Christianity have been shaped by unequal balances of political power and cultural influence. Although communities of Christians have lived in southern India since the middle of the 1st millennium, the great expansion of Indian Christianity followed the efforts of missionaries working under the protection of British colonial rule. Their denigration of selected features of Hindu practice—most notably image worship , suttee , and child marriage (the first two were also criticized by Muslims)—was shared by certain Hindus. Beginning in the 19th century and continuing into the 21st, a movement that might be called neo- Vedanta has emphasized the monism of certain Upanishads , decried “popular” Hindu “degenerations” such as the worship of idols, acted as an agent of social reform, and championed dialogue between other religious communities.

Many Hindus are ready to accept the ethical teachings of the Gospels , particularly the Sermon on the Mount (whose influence on Gandhi is well known), but reject the theological superstructure. They regard Christian conceptions about love and its social consequences as a kind of bhakti and tend to venerate Jesus as a saint , yet many resent the organization, the reliance on authorities, and the exclusiveness of Christianity, considering these as obstacles to harmonious cooperation. They subscribe to Gandhi’s opinion that missionaries should confine their activities to humanitarian service and look askance at conversion, finding also in Hinduism what might be attractive in Christianity. A far more typical sentiment is expressed in the eagerness of Hindus of all social stations, especially the middle class, to send their children to high-quality (often English-language) schools established and maintained by Christian organizations. No great fear exists that the religious element in the curriculum will cause Hindu children to abandon their parents’ faith .

Since the appearance of Swami Vivekananda at the World’s Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893 and the subsequent establishment of the Vedanta Society in various American and British cities, Hinduism has had a growing missionary profile outside the Indian subcontinent . Conversion as understood by Christians or Muslims is usually not the aim. As seen in the Vedanta Society, Hindu perspectives are held to be sufficiently capacious that they do not require new adherents to abandon traditions of worship with which they are familiar, merely to see them as part of a greater whole. The Vedic formula “Truth is one, but scholars speak of it in many ways” (“Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti”) is much quoted. Many transnational Hindu communities—including Radha Soami Satsang Beas , Transcendental Meditation , the self-realization fellowship Siddha Yoga , the Sathya Sai Baba Satsang, and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON, popularly called Hare Krishna )—have focused on specific guru s or on forms of religious praxis such as devotional worship or meditation , particularly in their stages of most rapid growth. They frequently emphasize techniques of spiritual discipline more than doctrine. Of these groups, only ISKCON has a deeply exclusivist cast—which makes it, in fact, generally more doctrinaire than the Gaudiya Vaishnava lineages out of which its founding guru, A.C. Bhaktivedanta , emerged.

At least as important as these guru-centered communities in the increasingly international texture of Hindu life are communities of Hindus who have emigrated from South Asia to other parts of the world. Their character differs markedly according to region, class, and the time at which emigration occurred. Tamils in Malaysia celebrate a festival to the god Murugan (Thaipusam) that accommodates body-piercing vows. Formerly indentured laborers who settled on the Caribbean island of Trinidad in the mid-19th century have consolidated doctrine and practice from various locales in Gangetic India, with the result that Rama and Sita have a heightened profile. Many migrants from rural western India, especially Gujarat , became urbanized in East Africa in the late 19th century and resettled in Britain. Like those Gujaratis who came directly to the United States from India since the liberalization of U.S. immigration laws in 1965, once abroad they are more apt to embrace the reformist guru-centered Swaminarayan faith than they would be in their native Gujarat, though this is by no means universal.

Professional-class emigrants from South India have spearheaded the construction of a series of impressive Shrivaishnava -style temples throughout the United States, sometimes receiving financial and technical assistance from the great Vaishnava temple institutions at Tirupati . The placement of some of these temples, such as the Penn Hills temple near Pittsburgh, Pa., reveals the desire to evoke Tirupati’s natural environment on American soil. Similarly, Telugu -speaking priests from the Tirupati region have been imported to serve at temples such as the historically important Ganesha temple, constructed in Queens, New York , in 1975–77. Yet the population worshipping at these temples is far more mixed than that in India. This produces on the one hand sectarian and regional eclecticism and on the other hand a vigorous attempt to establish doctrinal common ground. As Vasudha Narayanan observed, educational materials produced at such temples typically hold that Hinduism is not a religion but a way of life, that it insists in principle on religious tolerance , that its Godhead is functionally trinitarian (the male trimurti of Brahma , Vishnu , and Shiva is meant, although temple worship is often very active at goddesses’ shrines), and that Hindu rituals have inner meanings consonant with scientific principles and are conducive to good health.

A small fraction of diaspora Hindus are also important contributors to the VHP, whose efforts since 1964 to find common ground among disparate Hindu groups have not only helped establish educational programs for youths but sometimes also contributed to displays of Hindu nationalism (Hindutva) such as were seen at Ayodhya in 1992. The struggle between “left” and “right” within the Hindu fold continued into the early 21st century, with diasporic groups playing a more important role than ever before. Because of their wealth and education, because globalizing processes lend them prestige and enable them to communicate constantly with Hindus living in South Asia, and because their experience as minorities tends to set them apart from their families in India itself, their contribution to the evolution of Hinduism has been a very interesting one.

“Hinduism,” originally an outsider’s word, designates a multitude of realities defined by period, time, sect, class, and caste. Yet the veins and bones that hold this complex organism together are not just chimeras of external perception. Hindus themselves—particularly diasporic Hindus—affirm them, continuing and even accelerating a process of self-definition that has been going on for millennia.

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